🍃Biology Paper 1 Flashcards
(395 cards)
1
Q
Bio: what is rose black spot
A
It is a fungi that spreads through rain, wind and contact. Its signified by purple or black spots on leaves. To treat it burn the affected leaves
2
Q
Bio: what is tobacco mosaic …
A
It is a virus that spreads by contact and causes a mosaic pattern on leaves, no treatment
3
Q
Bio: what are the 2 types of antibiotic
A
Bactericidal and bacteriostatic
4
Q
Bio: what do bactericidal antibiotics do
A
Kill the bacteria by removing the cell wall
5
Q
Bio: what are bacteriostatic antibiotics
A
They stop bacteria from reproducing by stopping protein synthesis and metabolic activity
6
Q
Bio: why do antibiotics not kill viruses
A
Because they don’t have a cell wall
7
Q
Bio: what is one type of resistant bacteria
A
MRSA
8
Q
Bio: what do plasmids in bacteria do in reference to antibiotics
A
They encode for resistance
9
Q
Bio: what are the 2 ways that painkillers can work
A
Blocking the pain signals, anti-inflammatory
10
Q
Bio: what are enzymes
A
Biological catalysts
11
Q
Bio: what is pepsin
A
An enzyme that breaks down protein works at PH 2 and is produced in the stomach
12
Q
Bio: how do you test for sugar/glucose
A
You use Benedict’s solution and put the test tube and a hot/warm water bath, red is positive, yellow is weakly positive and blue is negative
13
Q
Bio: how do you test for proteins
A
Biuret, purple is positive and pale blue is negative
14
Q
Bio: how do you test for lipids
A
Ethanol, goes cloudy when positive
15
Q
Bio: what does starch break down into
A
Glucose
16
Q
Bio: what does protein break down into
A
Amino acids
17
Q
Bio: what do lipids break down into
A
Fatty acids and glycerol
18
Q
Bio: what does starch break down into
A
Glucose
19
Q
Bio: how do you test for carbohydrates
A
Iodine, brown/blue is pos and yellow/brown is neg
20
Q
Bio: what are antitoxins
A
They are a protein released by white blood cells to neutralise toxins that might be released by pathogens
21
Q
Bio: what is herd immunity
A
This is where enough of a community is immune to protect the non immune
22
Q
Bio: what are lymphocytes
A
White blood cells involved in the specific immune responce
23
Q
Bio: what are phagocytes
A
They are in the non specific response and engulf pathogens
24
Q
Bio: what are monoclonal antibodies
A
They are identical copies of one antibody
25
Bio: what are monoclonal antibodies used for
- diagnosis
- to measure the levels of hormones and other chemicals in blood or to detect pathogens
- in research to locate the identity of specific molecules
- to treat some diseases
26
Bio: what is metabolism
The sum of all of the chemical reactions in an organisim
27
Bio: what removes lactic acid (part of body)
Liver
28
Bio: what are 4 things that affect the rate of photosynthesis
Light, temp, co2, chlorophyll concentration
29
Bio: what is an extremophyle
It is an organism that can survive in extreme conditions
30
Bio: what is an ecosystem
It is the living (biotic) and non living (abiotic) things in an environment
31
Bio: what is a population
The group of a certain species in an certain environment/ area
32
Bio: what is a community
A group of populations
33
Bio: what is osmosis
The net random movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration through a semi permiable membrane.
34
Bio: what is an autoimmune condition
It is where the body attacks itself
35
Bio: what affect does oestrogen have on LH
It increases LH - lutenizing hormone
36
Bio: what does oestrogen do
Builds up the uterus lining
37
Bio: what is FSH
Follicle stimulating hormone
38
Bio: what hormone does FSH stimulate the production of
Oestrogen
39
Bio: what affect does oestrogen have on FSH
Decreases it
40
Bio: when does progesterone get released
Progesterone is released when an egg is fertilised
41
Bio: what affect does progesterone have on FSH
Decreases
42
Bio: what are the 4 stages of the menstrual cycle
1. Menstruation (day 1) - loosing the lining of the uterus
2. Follicular phase - uterine lining builds up, ovum matures
3. Egg released-ovulation (~day 14) and travels down the fallopian tubes
4. Luteal phase uterine lining stays the same
43
Bio: where are Eukaryotic cells found
Plants, animals, fungi and protists
44
Bio: where are prokaryotic cells found
In bacteria
45
Bio: what is the size of Eukaryotic cells
5-100 micrometres
46
Bio: what are the size of Prokaryotic cells
0.2-2 micrometres
47
Bio: what can type 1 diabetics not produce
They cannot produce enough insulin
48
Bio: what do type 2 diabetics not do
Cells no longer respond to the insulin released and so too much sugar is in the blood
49
Bio: what does insulin do
It forces glucose into the cells and then cause glucose to form deposits in the liver which is then changed into glycogen
50
Bio: what does insulin do to the blood sugar and where is it produced
It decreases blood sugar and is produced in the pancreas
51
Bio: what do Prokaryotic cells NOT have (3 things)
They do not contain a nucleus, mitochondria or chloroplasts
52
Bio: do prokaryotic cells contain plasmids and what do plasmids do
Some do, they allow genetic information to be shared, they can replicate to do this
53
Bio: do prokaryotes have a nucleus
No, instead most of their genetic information is stored in a single loop in the cytoplasnm
54
Bio: what does glucagon do and where is it released
It is released from the pancreas and it stimulates stored glycogen in the pancreas to be converted into glucose and to be released into the bloodstream.
55
Bio: what is a follicle in the menstrual cycle
It is the developing egg
56
bio: What is the equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
57
bio: what are the 2 things plants use to store glucose and what do they do with them
cellulose - provides the plants with strength
starch - they store it to use for energy
58
bio: what is the xylem made of and what is it used for
it is made of dead cells and it is used for transport of minerals and water from the roots, strengthened by **lignin**, passive transport
59
bio: what is the phloem made of and what is it used for
it is made of living cells ( and cellulose ) and transports sugars made by photosynthesis both directions and also amino acids, active transport by using companion cells with lots of mitochondria to release energy
60
Bio: in the digestive system what does the small intestine do
Digests food and absorbs soluble food molecules
61
Bio: in the digestive system what does the liver do
It produces bile
62
Bio: in the digestive system what does the large intestine do
It absorbs water from the remaining undigested food and creates faeces
63
Bio: in the digestive system what does the stomach do
It digests food (mostly protein), breaks it down and kills foreign bacteria
64
Bio: in the digestive system what do the glands do
They produce digestive enzymes
65
Bio: what do the nephrons do and what hormone are they controlled by
They filter small molecules:
- minerals
- urea
- water
- glucose
They are controlled by ADH (more ADH more water reabsorbed)
66
Bio: does mitosis or meiosis create identical cells
Mitosis creates identical cells
67
Bio: how many daughter cells are created after mieosis
4
68
Bio: what is the abbreviation for the molecules that make up dna
A T C G
69
Bio: what is the backbone of DNA
DNA has a sugar - phosphate backbone
70
Bio: what makes up one amino acid
3 bace pairs (e.g. A and T)
71
Bio: what are genes made of
They are a sequence of bases (which make up amino acids) which encodes for a protein
72
Bio: what is a chromosome
It is a strand of DNA wrapped around proteins
73
Bio: what is a genome
All of the genetic information in an organisim.
74
Bio: what are alleles
They are different versions of the same gene
75
Bio: what are antibodies
They are not cells, they attach to antigens and are specific to certain antigens
76
Bio: what is an antigen
It is a chemical (usually a protein) on the surface of a cell the is specific to it.
77
Bio: what is a tissue
A group of **SIMILAR** cells
78
Bio: if a person has a dominant medical condition must one of the parents show symptoms
Yes
79
bio: what is the equation for anaerobic respiration (human)
glucose -> lactic acid
80
bio: why is anaerobic respiration (animals) less efficient
becasue it does not break the glucose down completly
81
bio: what is fermentation, where does it occur and what is the organisim that it occurs in
fermentation occurs in yeast which is a uni cellular fungi, fermention is anaerobic respiration transferring glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxids that happens optimaly at 37 degrees
82
bio: what are the effects of exercise on the body
its affects are:
- increased heart rate
- increased breathing rate
- increased breath volume
- blood vessels dilating
83
bio: what is oxygen debt and what happens
this refers to the extra oxygen needed after exersice to oxidise the lactic acid and remove it from the cells
84
bio: how is oxygen debt repayed
1. the blood flowing throug the muscles transports lactic acid to the liver
2. it is reacted with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water
3. heavy breathing helps to get this oxygen to the lungs
85
bio: how do viruses survive and replicate
they invade cells, insert their own DNA which allows them to be copied
86
bio: what happens once the virus has been synthesised in the cell
the cell burst releasing the virus into the nearby cells
87
Bio: what is the average size of a bacteria
0.5 to 5 μm
88
Bio: what is the average size of human cells
10 - 30 μm
89
Bio: what is the average size of a virus
20-400 nm
90
Bio: what is a virus
It is genetic information in a protein coat
91
Bio: what is a protist
They are eukaryotic organisims that are not animals, plants and fungi
92
Bio: define a bacteria
Bacteria – A group of microorganisms which have a cell wall without cellulose and with no nucleus
93
Bio: what are the 3 properties of active transport
Conc low to high
Energy required
Carrier protiens
94
Bio: what is a place that active transport occurs (in cells)
Across cell membraine
95
bio: what are the 2 ways of treating infertility
fertility drugs
invitro fertalisation
96
bio: how can glucose be made into amino acids
by combinting it with nitrate ions
97
bio: what makes a protist eukariotic
the fact that it has a nucleus
98
bio: what are the 3 ways of spreading infectious disease
direct contact
air
water
99
Bio: how do you test for lipids
You use ethanol
100
Bio: what part of the blood transports glucose
The blood plasma
101
Bio: what does heterozygous mean
One dominant and one recessive gene, Bb or bB
102
Bio: what does homozygous mean
Either one dominant and one dominant allele or one recessive and one recessive
BB or bb
103
Bio: describe the double bace pair structure of dna
2 molecules of A, T, G or C form a bace and 2 of these bases come together to form a ‘rung’ in the DNA ladder
104
Bio: what is a base in DNA
It is a pair of molecules A, T, G, C
105
Bio: how many bases are required to encode for one amino acid in DNA
3, this is known as the triplet code
106
Bio: what is the immune system made up of
White blood cells
107
Bio: what produces antibodies
White blood cells
108
Bio: describe how antibodies work to destroy pathogens
Antigens are proteins found on the surface of cells, antibodies form a complimentary shape to these antibodies, white blood cells produce these antibodies that then join pathogen cells form a microorganism cluster that can then be ingested by the phagocytes.
109
Bio: what are antigens
They are chemicals often proteins on the surface of cells that are specific to them
110
Bio: explain how vaccines work
A dead pathogen is injected, the immune system recognises that the antigen is foreign, white blood cells (B lymphocytes) antibodies that are specific to the injected pathogen, some of these white blood cells produce memory cells and are able to produce the antibodies for the pathogen
111
Bio: name 2 ion deficiencies and say how they can affect plants
- Magnesium deficiency, magnesium is required for the production of chlorophyll, the plant cannot photosynthesise as well, also the leaves go yellow
- Nitrate deficiency, they are needed for the production of proteins, without proteins plants cannot grow
112
Bio: describe a nitrate deficiency in plants
Nitrates are used for protein synthesis, without proteins plants cannot grow
113
Bio: describe a magnesium deficiency in plants
Magnesium deficiency means that the plant cannot produce as much chlorophyll and so cannot photosynthesize as much, it also turns the leaves yellow.
114
Bio: how do bacteriostatic antibiotics work
They inhibit protein synthesis or DNA replication and stop the bacteria from reproducing.
115
Bio: what are the 3 types of plant defences and what are some examples
- **physical defenses** - waxy cuticle, bark, cell walls
- **chemical defenses** - antibacterial chemicals are produced, poisons can also be produced
- **mechanical defenses** - thorns, spikes, mimicry
116
bio: what is an epithelial tissue
they line the outer surface of organs and blood vessels
117
bio: what do muscular tissues do
they contract and relax to exert a force
118
bio: what is a mesophyll
it is a layer capable of photosynthesis
119
bio: what are epidermal tissues in animals
skin
120
bio: what are epidermal tissues in plants
waxy covering of some plants
121
bio: what is glandular tissue
it is tissue that produces digestive 'juices'
122
bio: define an organ
they are groups of tissues that work together to perform a function
123
bio: what is an organ system
they are groups of organs that work together to perform specific roles
124
bio: what is the active site of an enzyme
they catalyze the reaction, only when the specific reacting chemical is bound to it
125
bio: what are the 3 main digestive enzymes
- carbohydrase
- protease
- lipase
126
bio: what can amylase help to digest
Starch
127
bio: what can protease help to digest
digests proteins
128
bio: what can lipase help to digest
fats
129
bio: what is bile used for and where is it stored
- it is stored in the gall bladder
- it neutralizes acid thus creates conditions that enzymes in the small intestines operate best in
130
bio: what is emulsification and what role in it does bile play
emulsification is bile breaking up fats into small droplets, these droplets have a higher surface area and so it is easier for lipase to catalyze the reaction
131
bio: what are arteries
- they transport blood form the heart to the organs
- they have thick muscle walls
- the artery walls have elastic fibers, allowing them to strech
132
bio: what are capillaries
- arteries branch into capillaries, which are much smaller, **one cell thick**
- food and oxygen move out of the capillaries and into the cells
- waste products such as carbon dioxide move out of the cells and into the capillaries
133
bio: what are veins
- they have thin cell walls and valves to make sure blood flows in the right direction
- transport blood from the organs to the heart
134
Bio: what happens in interphase
DNA copies itself ready for mitosis
135
Bio: what happens in prophase
Nucleus membrane disappears
DNA copies and condences
136
Bio: what happens in metaphase
Chromosomes and their copies line up in the middle of the cells
137
Bio: what happens in anaphase
Chromosomes and copies go to the edge of cells
138
Bio: what happens in telophase
New membranes for around the chromosomes and copies in the corners of the cells
139
Bio: what happens in cytokenisis
Cell pinches and new membrane forms
140
bio: in adults what are stem cells used for
to replace dying cells
141
bio: in embryos what are stem cells used for
they can change into most cell types
142
bio: what are some uses of stem cells
- stem cell treatments
- plant clones
- theraputic cloning
143
bio: what is theraputic cloning
create an embryo with the same DNA as the patient and use some of the stem cells for treatment
144
bio: what are some disadvantages of using stem cells for medical treatments
- viral infections
- ethical beliefs
145
bio: how is active transport used in the gut
it is used to absorb sugar from the gut into the blood, even when the concentration of sugars in the blood is higher
146
bio: how is active transport used for minerals in plants
it allows the root hair cells to absorb minerals necisary for cell growth
147
Bio: What is a valid result of a experiment
Something valid is repeatable and reproducible
- **Repeatable** = you can redo the tests again and again with the same results
- **Reproducible** = someone else can redo the tests and get the same results
148
bio: What makes a prokaryotic cell different from a eukaryotic cell
1. They have a single circular strand of DNA rather than a nucleus
2. They have no mitochondria and chloroplasts
149
bio: what does a ribosome do?
Where proteins are made based on DNA
150
bio: what are proteins made of?
Amino acids
151
bio: where does the drug Digitalis originate from
Foxglove
152
bio: where does the drug Aspirin originate from
Willow
153
bio: what type of drug is Aspirin
used to reduce pain and inflamation
154
bio: what is transpiration
It is the process of water being lost as vapour through the stomata
155
bio: how is protein digested in the digestive system
The stomach releases pepsin which converts proteins into amino acids. In addition, the small intestine releases pepsin in its ‘pancreatic juice’ that also releases protiens
156
bio: how are lipids digested
First they are emulsified by bile, then they are broken down by lipase in the small intestine into fatty acids and glycerol
157
Bio: what does the vena cava do
It is a vein that delivers de-oxygenated blood from the body to the heart
158
bio: What does the pulmonary vein do
It delivers oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
159
bio: what does the aorta do
Oxygenated blood is pumped by the heart to the body
160
bio: what does the pulmonary artery do
De-oxygenated blood is pumped by the heart to the lungs
161
Bio: what do the coronary arteries do
The supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle
162
Bio: explain how the trachea branches into the alveoli
- trachea branch into the bronchi
- bronchi divide into the brunchioles
- bronchioles divide into the alvioli
- the alveoli are surrounded by many capillaries that allow gas exchange
163
Bio: what is blood
It is a tissue
164
Bio: what are the 3 types of blood cells
- white blood cells
- red blood cells
- platelets
165
Bio: what are platelets and what do they do
They are blood cells with no nucleus, they are responsible for blood clotting at the site of wounds
166
Bio: what are some features of red blood cells
- biconcave shape, large surface area
- haemoglobin, bind with oxygen in the lungs
- no nucleus
- small so they can pass through tiny capillaries
167
bio: which side of the heart deals with de-oxygenated blood
the right side
168
bio: which side of the heart deals with oxygenated blood
the left side
169
bio: in what type of organisms does fermentation occur
- plants
- yeast
170
bio: what is yeast
it is a single celled fungi
171
bio: when investigating the rate of enzyme reaction what 4 factors have to be kept constant
- temperature
- PH
- substrate concentration
- enzyme concentration
172
bio: what breaks down carbohydrates in the human body
Carbohydrase
173
bio: what is amylase a type of
Carbohydrase
174
bio: where and how does amylase operate
amylase breaks down starches in the small intestine and mouth
175
bio: what is translocation
it is the process of food produced by photosynthesis being transported from the leaves to the growing regions of the plant
176
Bio: when the cover slip is applied to a slide with a subject on it, why is it applied at an angle?
To prevent or to reduce air bubbles forming
177
Bio: what type of acid is in the stomach
Hydrochloric acid
178
Bio: an egg joins to a sperm in a process called:
Fertilisation
179
Bio: what do cells do
They provide structure and carry out functions
180
Bio: what 3 things do plant cells contain that animals dont and explain them
- cell wall - rigidity
- permanent vacuole - large sack that contains water and has a membraine
- chloroplasts
181
Bio: what sub cellular structures do bacteria contain and what do they do
- cell wall and membrane for rigidity
- flagella, whip like structures used for movement
- plasmids DNA rings
182
Bio: why do cells differentiate
They differentiate to acquire different sub cellular structures
183
Bio: when do plants differentiate
Their cells differentiate over different parts of development
184
Bio: when do animals deffierentiate
They often differentiate early in development, mostly cells divide to replace tissues.
185
Bio: what are the parts of sperm cells
- acrosome
- head
- middle section
- flagellum
186
Bio: what is the function of the head of the sperm cell
Contains the nucleus which contains half the genetic information of an organisim
187
Bio: what is the function of the acrosome of the sperm cell
The part at the tip of the head that contains the enzyme used to break into the egg
188
Bio: what is the function of the middle section of sperm cells
It contains many mitochondria used to generate energy for movement
189
Bio: what is the function of the flagellum of sperm cells
It is the ‘tail’ used for momvement
190
Bio: what is the function of the axon of a nerve cell
It is the part of the cell that electrical signals travel along
191
Bio: what is the function of the myelin sheath in a nerve cell
It is ‘insulation’ to stop electrical signals leaking
192
Bio: what is the function of the dendrites in nerve cells
Branches of nerve cells that connect them to other nerve cells
193
Bio: what is the function of the synapses in nerve cells
They allow electrical signals to travel between neurones
194
Bio: what is the function of the mitochondria in muscle cells
They contain many mitochondria to generate energy
195
Bio: what is the function of the protein fibres in muscle cells
They are the things that are contracted to induce movement
196
Bio: what are the parts of the neurone cells
- axon
- myelin sheath
- dendrites
197
Bio: what are the parts of muscle cells
- mitochondria
- protien fibres
198
Bio: what are the specialisations of the root hair cells
- no chloroplasts
- long projections - to increase surface area for absorption
199
Bio: what are the specialisations of the xylem
- open ended cells - dead xylem cells are broken so they have open ends to allow water to flow
- lignin strengthens it
200
Bio: what are the specialisations of the phloem
- sieve tubes - specialised for transport and have no nuclei, each sieve tube has a perforated end so its cytoplasm connects one cell to the next
- companion cells - transport of substances in the phloem required energy, one or more companion cells attached to each sieve tube provide this energy, a sieve tube is completely dependent on its companion cells
201
Bo: what type of white blood cell releases antibodies
Lymophocytes
202
Bio: if a boiled potato was used in thee osmosis practical and no net change was recorded why **could** this have been
Because the semi permeable membrane could have been damaged
203
Bio: what things affect the rate of transpiration
- temp
- humidity
- air movement
- light intensity, rate of photosynthesis
204
Bio: what 2 materials can bacteria be grown on
- agar plates
- nutrient broth
205
Bio: what is a nutrient broth
They contain carbs as an energy source, they also contain minerals and other chemicals
206
Bio: how do you know the bacteria growth has been contaminated
If non investigated bacteria enter the experiment then it has been contaminated
207
Bio: how is a bacteria growth RP contaminated
If non investigated bacteria enter the experiment then it has been contaminated
208
Bio: what is aseptic technique
They prevent growth of bacteria
209
Bio: what are the 4 ways of performing aseptic technique
- **flames** - inoculation loops (used to transfer bacteria) are passed through flame sterilisation
- **boiling** - solutions of and agar are boiled to be sterilised
- **lids** - they stop the air from getting in, it can contain bacteria
- **temp** - bacteria are kept at a certain temp to reduce the growth of other bacteria
210
Bio: how can the future population of a group of bacteria be predicted
The current population can be multiplied by a factor of 2 for every mean division time
211
Bio: what is the order of events for mitosis
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
6. Cytocenisis
212
Bio: What are the layers of a leaf
213
Bio: what are the stomata closed and opened by
The guard cells
214
Bio: what do the guard cells do
They open and close the stomata
215
Bio: what are the 4 non-specific defences of the body
- skin
- stomach acid
- nose
- trachea bronchi mucus - traps pathogens
Check last one
216
Bio: what are anti-toxins
They are proteins released by the white blood cells that neutralise the toxins that may be released by pathogens
217
Bio: what are the properties of starch
- insoluble
- storage from of carbs
218
Bio: what is cellulose used for
- Used to build cell walls
- add strength to cell walls
219
Bio: what are lipids used for in plants
They are used as storage for glucose in seeds
220
Bio: what ions are used to make amino acids in plants
nitrates
221
Bio: what ph is the stomach
It is ph 2
222
Bio: what does amylase break down
Starch
223
Bio: what is the process for transpiration
1. Root hair cells absorb the water from the soil by osmosis
2. Mineral ions are taken up by active transport
3. Water and minerals are transported up through the xylem to the leaves
4. When the water reaches the leaves most of it evaporates, this is transpiration
224
bio: what is excretion
- it is the removal of waste products of metabolic reactions, CO2 must be excreted because it forms an acidic solution when it dissolves in water
- removal of toxins
- removal of substances excess to requirements
225
bio: what is the vaccuel in a plant cell filled with
Cell sap
226
Bio: how often do bacteria divide
As little as 20 mins provided sufficient nutrients and environments
227
Bio: what type of cultures of microorganisms are needed to test antibiotics
Uncontaminated
228
Bio: how many genes does one chromosome carry
A large number (chromosome 1 2000-2100)
229
Bio: in most bodily cells how many copies of each chromosome are there
2
230
Bio: what does a cell have to do before it divides
It needs to grow and increase size and number of subcellular structures
231
Bio: what can bone marrow stem cells become
Most other type of cells, including blood cells
232
Bio: what can plant meristem be used for
Making plant clones quickly and economically, this can help to save rare species from extinction, and to clone useful crop plants with special features in large volumes
233
Bio: what are 3 chemicals that are transported into and out of cells by diffusion
- carbon dioxide
- urea
- oxygen
234
Bio: what are 3 factors that affect the rate of diffusion in cells
- surface area of the membrane
- temp
- concentration gradient
235
Bio: what are 4 ways multi cellular organisms are optimised for diffusion
- large surface area
- thin membrane, **short diffusion path**
- (in animals) a efficient blood supply
- (in animals for gas exchange) being ventilated
236
Bio: where does the energy for active transport come from
respiration
237
Bio: where is amylase produced
Pancreas and salivary glands
238
Bio: what is the site of production for protease
Stomach, pancreas and small intestine
239
Bio: what is the site of production of lipase
Pancreas
240
Bio: what do digestive enzymes do
They convert food into small soluable molecules that can be absorbed into the blood
241
Bio: what are the products of digestion used for
- to build new carbohydrates
- to build new lipids
- to build now protiens
- glucose can be used for respiaration
242
Bio: is photosynthesis endo or Exothermic
Endothermic
243
Bio: what is active transport
It is the movement of a substance against the concentration gradient using energy and a carrier protien in the membrane check
244
Bio: where do you commonly find cellulose
In the cell wall
245
Bio: what is cellulose (made of)
Long chains of glucose
246
bio: how has microscopy developed over time
from the late 1500s to the late 1600s microscopes were invented and their magnifications grew from ∼3x to 275x, then in the 1800s the resolution of these microscopes increased, electron microscopes were invented which have much greater resolution and magnification
247
bio: what property of single celled organisms allows sufficient transport of molecules into and out of them
their relatively high surface area to volume ratio
248
Bio: what are the properties of bile
- it is stored in the gall bladder
- it is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid from the stomach
249
Bio: what does the heart do
It pumps blood around the body in a **double circulatory system**
250
bio: what controls the natural resting heart rate (through electrical signals)
There is a set of cells located in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker
251
Bio: where is the hearts "natural pacemaker"
It is a group of cells located in the right atrium
252
Bio: what are artificial pacemakers
They are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate
253
Bio: what 4 things make up blood
- plasma
- red and white blood cells
- platlets
254
Bio: what happens in coronary heart disease
Layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary arteries narrowing them, this reduces blood flow though the arteries resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle
255
Bio: what are the 2 treatments for coronary heart disease
- stents
- statins
256
Bio: how do stents work
They are metal meshes that are inserted to keep the coronary arteries open
257
Bio: how do statins work
They are widely used to reduce cholesterol levels in the blood which reduces the rate of deposit for fatty materials
258
Bio: what can happen to heart valves that can stop them from doing what
They can become faulty which prevents them from **opening fully** or they might **develop a leak**
259
Bio: what are the 2 ways that faulty heart valves can be replaced
- mechanical valves
- biological valves
260
bio: in the case of heart failure what can be done
a donor heart of heart and lungs can be transplanted
261
Bio: what can be occasionally be used to keep patients alive while waiting for a heart transplant
An artificial heart
262
bio: what is the other use of artificial heart apart from waiting for a donor heart
They can be used to let the heart rest as an aid to recovery
263
Bio: what is health
It is the state of physical and mental wellbeing
266
Bio: what can a defect with the immune system mean that an individual is more likely to suffer from
Infectious disease
267
Bio: in living cells what can viruses be a trigger for
Cancer
268
Bio: what can severe physical ill health lead to
Depression
269
Bio: what can immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen cause
Asthma and skin rashes
270
Bio: what risk factors can lead to an increased rate of disease
- lifestyle aspects
- substances in the individuals environment or body
271
Bio: what are some causal mechanisms that can cause cardiovascular disease
- smoking
- diet
- exercise
272
Bio: what are some causal mechanisms that can cause type 2 diebeties
Obesity
273
Bio: what is a causal mechanism that can cause both affected brain function and liver function
alchohol
274
Bio: what is a causal mechanism that can cause lung disease and lung cancer
smoking
275
Bio: what are some things people can intake that can affect unborn babies
- alcohol
- smoking
276
Bio: what are some causal mechanisms that can cause cancer
- carcinogens
- ionising radiation (which is a carcinogen)
277
Bio: are diseases caused by one factor
Not nessisary, they can be caused by **interaction** of factors
278
Bio: what is cancer
a change in the cells that lead to uncontrolled cell division
279
Bio: what are malignant tumors
They are tumors that are cancers, they invade neighbouring cells and tissues and spread to different parts of the body through the blood where they form secondary tumors
280
Bio: what are the factors that can affect the chance of getting cancer (2)
- Lifestyle factors
- Genetic factors
281
Bio: in a plant what is a leaf
It is an organ
282
Bio: in a plant what does the organ system that transports substances around that plant consist of
- roots
- stem
- leaves
283
Bio: what are the xylem adapted for the transport of
water
284
Bio: what do the stomata and guard cells control
Gass exchange and water loss
285
Bio: what are the phloem cells made of (more structure and features)
Tubes of elongated cells, cell sap can move from one phloem cell to the next through pores in the end walls
286
Bio: what is a pathogen
It is a microorganism that causes disease
287
Bio: what do bacteria and viruses do inside the body
They **can** reproduce rapidly
288
Bio: what can bacteria produce that might make us feel ill and that can damage tissues
poisons (toxins)
289
Bio: what is an example of a disease caused by a protist
malaria
290
Bio: what is malaria and what are its symptoms
It is a protist disease that causes episodes of fever and can be fatal
291
Bio: how is the spread of malaria prevented
By preventing the vectors, mosquitoes, from breeding and by using mosquito nets to avoid being bitten
292
Bio: what does the malaria protists life cycle include
The mosquito
293
Bio: what are 2 diseases caused by bacteria
- salmonella
- gonorrhoea
294
Bio: what symptoms does salmonella cause
- vomiting
- diarrhoea
- fever
- abdominal pain
All caused by the toxins secreted by the bacteria
295
Bio: how do people get salmonella
By eating unhygienically prepared food
296
Bio: how do we stop the spread of salmonella?
By vaccinating some poultry (in the UK) to control the spread
297
Bio: what are the symptoms of gonorrhoea
- discharge from penis or vagina
- pain when urinating
- can cause infertility
298
Bio: how is gonorrhoea prevented
It is caused by a bacteria and was easily treated by by penicilin until resistant strains appeared, its spread can be controlled by treatment with antibiotics and by barrier methods of contraception like a condom
299
Bio: what are 3 examples of viruses
- measles
- HIV
- tobacco mosaic virus
300
Bio: what is measles and what are the symptoms of it
- It is a serious condition that can be fatal if complications arise
- its symptoms are of fevers and red skin
301
Bio: what are the symptoms of HIV
Initially it causes a flu like illness, it attacks the bodies immune cells and, in the late stage infection, AIDS, makes them so weak that they cannot defend against other infections or cancer
302
Bio: how is HIV spread
sexual contact of exchange of bodily fluids such as blood which occurs when people share needles
303
Bio: how is measles spread
By inhalation of droplets form sneezes and coughs
304
Bio: how is measles prevented
It is vaccinated against in kids
305
Bio: how is HIV prevented and treated
- barrier contraception don’t share needles
- It can only be controlled by antiretroviral drugs
306
Bio: why can it be difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses
Because the drugs can also damage the bodies tissues
307
Bio: how can plant diseased be detected
- stunted growth
- spots on leaves
- areas of decay
- growths
- malformed stems or leaves
- discoloration
- presence of pests
308
Bio: what is decay in plants also called
rot
309
Bio: how can plant diseases be identified
- reference to gardening manual or website
- taking infected plants to a lab to identify the pathogen
- using test kits that contain **monoclonal antibodies**
310
Bio: what type of pathogen is TMV
Tobbaco mosaic **virus**
311
Bio: what type of pathogen is rose black spot
fungi
312
Bio: what are the 3 types of plant disease that you must know
- tobbaco mosaic virus
- black spot
- aphids
313
Bio: what can the glucose in photosynthesis be used for
- respiration
- making fat or oil for storage
- to produce cellulose to strengthen cell walls
- used to produce amino acids for protein synthesis
314
Bio: what does respiration supply
**All** of the energy needed for living processes
315
Bio: what 3 things do organisms need energy for
- growth
- movement
- homeostasis
316
Bio: what is the equation of anaerobic respiration in plants
Glucose -> ethanol + carbon dioxide
317
Bio: what process provides all energy for living processes
respiration
318
Bio: what does metabolism include
- conversion of glucose to starch
- formation of lipid molecules from a molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids
- the use of glucose and nitrate ions to form amino acids
- respiration
- breakdown of excess proteins to form urea
319
Bio: what are lipid molecules formed from
A molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids
320
Bio: what is used to form amino acids and what do they then go on to form
Glucose and nitrate ions, they then go on to form proteins
321
Bio: what is the inverse square law
Light intensity is inversely proportionally to distance squared (or light intercity is directly proportional to 1/distance squared)
322
Bio: what is the energy transferred by respiration used for by an organism (continuous process)
Metabolisim that synthesises new molecules check
323
Bio: who discovered penicillin and from what
Alexander Fleming - from the penicillium mould
324
Bio: traditionally where do drugs come from
Plants and microorganisms
325
Bio: how are most new drugs made in the pharmaceutical industry
They are synthesised by chemicals, however as traditionally, the starting point for these chemicals may still be a chemical steaming from a plant
326
Bio: what are new drugs tested for
- toxicity
- efficacy
- dose
327
Bio: how is preclinical testing done
It is done in a lab using cells tissues and live animals
328
Bio: what has to happen to new medical drugs before being used
They must be trialled to make sure that they are safe and **effective**
329
Bio: what are monoclonal antibodies produced from
Hybridoma
330
Bio: what can monoclonal antibodies target (2), due to what?
- a specific chemical or specific cells
- specificity to an antigen
331
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies produced
1. Mouse lymphocytes are stimulated to make a particular antibody.
2. The spleen (which produces the lymphocytes) is removed
3. The spleen cells are fused with **human cancerous white blood cells** called myeloma cells to form hybridoma cells which divide indefinitely
4. The hybridoma cell can divide and produce millions of monoclonal antibodies
332
Bio: what is made when a mouse lymphocytes is combined with a particular kind of tumor cell
A hybridoma cell
333
Bio: what is the example of monoclonal antibodies being used for diagnosis that you must know
They are used for diagnosis in pregnancy tests
334
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies used in labs
To measure the level of hormones and other chemicals in blood, or to detect pathogens
335
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies used in research
To locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue by binding to them with a fluorescent dye
336
Bio: how are monoclonal antibodies used for the treatment of cancer
Monoclonal antibodies can be bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug of chemical which stops cells from dividing, it delivers the substance to the cancer cells without harming other cells in the body
337
Bio: what do monoclonal antibodies have more of than expected
They have more side effects than were expected
338
Bio: were monoclonal antibodies as widely used as expected
No they are not
339
Bio: why is it hard to investigate the brain
Because of its complexity
340
Bio: optimal ph for analyse
Ph 7
341
Bio: what are the types of pathogen that can be injected during vaccinations
- dead pathogen
- inactive (live but don’t cause disease)
342
Bio: what is an antibody **specific to**
An antigen
343
Bio: what is the graph of first an second exposure of antigen concentration
344
Bio: what is the compensation point in photosynthesis
The point at which the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration
345
Bio: what does digitails do
stimulate heart muscle and increase heart rate
346
Bio: what is a heart attack and what is a cardiac arrest
347
Bio: how much DnA does he head of a sperm cell contain
Half of the normal (23 rather than 46 chromasones)
349
Bio: what are benign tumors
They are growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane, they do no invade other parts of the body
350
Bio: what are causes of ill health
- Disease, both communicable and non
- diet
- stress
- life situations
351
Bio: pros cons and treatments of faulty heart valves
352
Bio add on anaerobic and aerobic decomposition
353
Check the places where enzymes released
354
Bio: where is the eyepiece on a microscope
355
Bio: where is the fine focus knob on a microscope
356
Bio: where is the coarse adjustment knob on a microscope
357
Bio: where is the objective lens on a microscope
358
Bio: how do fungi spread
Through spores, when they release spores they can propagate
359
Bio: why do antibiotics not work on viruses
- 2 types of antibiotic
- virus has no cell wall so no bacteriocydal
- virus do not do protein synthesis so no bacteriostatic
360
Complimentary structure of antigen and antibodies
361
Bio: what is a treatment for salmonella
General card, antibiotics can be prescribed
362
Bio: when you talk about differences how many do you mention (exam technique)
2
363
Bio: where is the stage on a microscope
364
Bio: check if how platelets clot is necessary
365
Bio: what do new drugs need to be tested for
- dose
- toxicity
- effctivness
366
bio: what produces bile
liver
367
Bio: what are the adaptations of the alvioli adaptions
- they have a very large surface area - they are small in size (300 µm) and there are 700 million of them (their total surface area is 70 square miles
- they have a short diffusion path, 1 cell thick capillaries cause this
- they are lined with a thin film of moisture - gasses dissolve in this water, making the diffusion path even smaller
368
bio: how are the gills in fish adapted
- Water is taken in through the fish's mouth, passes over the gills and then under the operculum
- the moving water over the exchange surfaces of the fish continually removes the gasses, oxygen enters the blood and CO2 is removed in the water
369
bio: what enzyme does the stomach produce
- pepsin
370
bio: where are pancreas enzymes released
small intestine
371
Bio: why is gas exchange in fish hard
- the oxygen concentration in the water is 1% at 15 degrees (21% in air), this means that the efficiency of gills must be very high (and is)
372
Bio: what are the adaptations of the gills
- the gills have a large surface area, this means that the capillaries in each gill filament have a large surface area
- they have a short distance that is required for diffusion due to the capillary walls being 1 cell thick
- the gills are efficiently ventilated with water, there is a counter flow of water and the blood
373
Bio: what is the process that brings that air to the alvioli called
ventilation
374
Bio: how do the lungs work to do ventilation
- inhale - diaphragm contracts pulling downwards and the intercostal muscles contract moving the ribs upwards and outwards, the volume of the thorax increases, pressure decreases and air is drawn in
375
Bio: what is breathing
It is a passive process resulting from pressure changes in the lungs
376
Bio: what type of tissue is skin
Epithelial
377
Bio: what does LH do
Triggers ovulation
378
Bio: what does progesterone do
Maintains the lining of the uterus in preparation for the implementation of a fertilised egg
379
380
Bio: what 2 hormones does progesterone decrease
- FSH
- LH
381
Bio: what are the graphs for the levels of hormones in the menstrual cycle
382
Bio: what 2 hormones does oestrogen effect and how
- inhibits the release of FSH
- stimulates the release of LH
383
Bio: where is oestrogen produced
The ovary
384
Bio: what menstural hormones does the pituitary produce
- FSH
- LH
385
Bio: what is ovulation
It is when the egg is released
386
Bio: how many stages of drug trials are there
3
387
Bio: what are the 3 stages of drug trials
1. the drugs are tested using computer models and skin cells grown using human stem cells. This allows efficacy and possible side effects to be tested. Many substances fail this preclinical drug trial because they damage cells or do not seem to work
2. drugs that pass the first stage are tested on animals in the second part of a preclinical drug trial. In the UK new medicines have to undergo these tests. It is illegal to test cosmetics and tobacco on animals. A typical test involves giving a known amount of the substance to the animals, then monitoring them carefully for any side effects
3. Drugs that have passed animal tests are used in human clinical trials. They are tested on healthy volunteers to check that they are safe, the substances are then tested on people with the illness the ensure that they are safe and effective, low doses of the drug are used initially and if it is safe higher doses are applied
388
Bio: what happens in the first stage of drug testing
the drugs are tested using computer models and skin cells grown using human stem cells. This allows efficacy and possible side effects to be tested. Many substances fail this preclinical drug trial because they damage cells or do not seem to work
389
Bio: what happens in the second stage of drug testing
drugs that pass the first stage are tested on animals in the second part of a preclinical drug trial. In the UK new medicines have to undergo these tests. It is illegal to test cosmetics and tobacco on animals. A typical test involves giving a known amount of the substance to the animals, then monitoring them carefully for any side effects
390
Bio: what happens in the third stage of drug testing
Drugs that have passed animal tests are used in human clinical trials. They are tested on healthy volunteers to check that they are safe, the substances are then tested on people with the illness the ensure that they are safe and effective, low doses of the drug are used initially and if it is safe higher doses are applied
391
Bio: where is LH produced
Pituitary (in the brain)
392
Bio: where is FSH produced
Pituitary (in the brain)
393
Bio: what is a risk factor
It is a factor that can increase the likelihood of getting a disease
394
Bio: what are 2 types of risk factors
- aspects lifestyle
- substances in the body
395
Bio: 4 main organs of a plant
- leaves
- stems
- reproductive organs
- roots
396
Bio: in coronary heart disease what is it that builds up in the arteries
Fatty material
397
Bio: how are the artery walls adapted
- thick walls for high pressure
- elastic fibers so they can spring back
398
Bio: ciliated cells
