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Biology study Flashcards

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1
Q

Role of the nucleus

A

Contains DNA, controls the cell and produces ribosomes

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2
Q

Role of the ribosome

A

Makes proteins using amino acids, knows what proteins to make by reading the DNA strand brought to them by the mRNA. Can be found in cytoplasm and on the RER

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3
Q

Role of the mitochondria

A

The mitochondria makes ATP during cellular respiration. It uses glucose and oxygen, and the resulting process makes the ATP, water and carbon dioxide. Have a double membrane

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4
Q

Role of the chloroplast

A

Place where photosynthesis occurs in plant cells

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5
Q

Role of the vacuole

A

Contains water and other nutrients important to plant cells. It also provides the cell with structure. Takes up 80-90% of the cell.

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6
Q

Role of the Golgi body/apparatus

A

modifies and sorts proteins to be ready for secretion.

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7
Q

Role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Contains ribosomes, assists in the creation and movement of proteins and other substances.

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8
Q

Role of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Makes lipids, detoxifies substances and involved in substance movement.

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9
Q

Role of the lysosome

A

Breaks down waste using digestive enzymes

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10
Q

Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

A

Eukaryotic cells are much larger, and contain a nucleus and membrane bound organelles which are not found in prokaryotic cells.

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11
Q

Which cells have cell walls

A

Prokaryotic cells have cell walls, and plant and fungi cells also have cell walls.

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12
Q

Describe cellular respiration

A

Occurs in the mitochondria. Uses glucose and sugar to produce ATP (energy), water and carbon dioxide. It occurs in all eukaryotic cells.

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13
Q

Describe photosynthesis

A

It occurs in the chloroplast. Uses carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen. It only occurs in plant cells.

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14
Q

Why do plant cells use photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

A

Photosynthesis produces the chemical energy (sugar) used by the mitochondria to produce ATP

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15
Q

What suggests mitochondria where once bacteria?

A

Both have circular DNA, a double membrane and mitochondria can replicate independently.

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16
Q

What is cytoplasmic streaming?

A

The moving of the cytoplasm within a cell that allows for the movement of organelles and nutrients.

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17
Q

What are specialized cells?

A

Specialised cells have slight changes to optimise their functions. An example is the lack of a nucleus in red blood cells so they can transport more oxygen.

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18
Q

Explain how the structure of the cell membrane allows it to be selectively permeable.

A

The cell membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Small or non-polar molecules (like oxygen) can pass through the bilayer easily. Larger or charged molecules (like glucose or ions) require transport proteins, making the membrane selectively permeable.

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19
Q

What are thylakoids?

A

Inside the chloroplast, there are flat, disc-shaped structures called thylakoids. These discs are often stacked in piles called grana. Thylakoids contain chlorophyll, the green pigment that absorbs sunlight. They are made of the third membrane layer.

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20
Q

What are centrioles?

A

Centrioles help animal cells divide by pulling the chromosomes into the right places. They exist in pairs. They replicate and migrate to the poles of the cell before division.

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21
Q

What do cilia and flagella do?

A

Cilia move substances along the surface of a cell, while flagella help cells move themselves.

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22
Q

Why are cells small?

A

Cells are small in order to allow for a greater nutrient intake because of the SA:V ratio.

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23
Q

What do peroxisomes do?

A

They protect from the cell’s own production of hydrogen peroxide

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24
Q

What does the cytoskeleton do?

A

It provides structure and assists with internal cell movement,

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25
3 parts of cell theory
All organisms are composed of cells The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization All cells come from pre existing cells
26
What is a plasmid?
Small circular DNA found in prokaryotic cells
27
What does the storage granule store?
It stores nutrients in prokaryotic cells.
28
What does peptiglycan do?
It stains bacteria red
29
What does the cytoplasmic membrane do?
It controls diffusion into the cell
30
What is the role of the capsule in prokaryotic cells
They protect the cell from attack, like attacks by phagocytes.
31
What are Archaea?
They are extremophiles, organisms that survive in extreme environments
32
What does PCR?
Polymerase chain reaction amplifies DNA
33
Reverse transcriptase does what?
It is an enzyme that directs the copy of DNA from mRNA template through reverse transcription
34
What is cDNA?
Complimentary DNA is a strand of DNA with the complementary bases to the opposite strand and is usually produced through reverse transcriptase.
35
What are endonucleases?
Also known as restriction enzymes, they cut DNA at recognition sites
36
Recognition sites be what?
Recognition sites are sites at which a cutting enzyme snips double stranded DNA
37
What are the two types of cuts that can result from a restriction enzyme cut.
Blunt ends are straight cuts, and can attach to any other blunt end. Sticky ends are not straight cuts and have overhangs. The overhangs can only attach to other sticky ends with complementary DNA bases.
38
What does ligase do?
Ligase joins together DNA strands and acts as glue.
39
Name the four base pairs.
Adenine and Thymine are complementary, and Cytosine and Guanine are complementary. A and T have
40
What sugar is present in DNA?
Deoxyribose.
41
Number of hydrogen bonds in both of the complementary DNA pairs.
Adenine and Thymine have two hydrogen bonds, Cytosine and Guanine have three.
42
Three parts of PCR
Denaturing, where the double stranded DNA separates. Occurs at 94-98 degrees celsius for one minute. Annealing is where primers (short segments of single stranded DNA) attach to the now single stranded DNA. Occurs at 50-65 degrees for two minutes. Extension is where Taq polymerase use the primers to start and then add nuceotides until the strand is complete. 72 degrees for one minute.
43
Steps of reverse transcription
mRNA is isolated from cytosol of specific cells. Poly-A tail is added to the mRNA (provides a segment for primer to attach to). Oligo-dT prime added and binds to poly-A mRNA trail. Reverse transcriptase enzyme added. DNA lengthens, order is controlled by the sequence in the mRNA. When the chain is complete the mRNA is removed by alkali treatment. Polymerase enzyme is added which catalyzes complementary DNA strand making. Final product is cDNA
44
What does CRISPR stand for.
Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
45
Where is CRISPR found and what is it's original purpose?
CRISPR is found in bacteria and was originally used to fight viruses.
46
What does CRISPR-Cas9 do
Used to edit genes, but requires a PAM site to do so. It cuts DNA and allows for the insertion/removal of nucleotides.
47
How does CRISPR-Cas9 work?
1. Uses the Guide RNA or synthetic guide RNA to identify the segment for modification 2. Cuts both strands of DNA using the CAS9 enyzme 3. New nucleotides can be added or old ones deleted by adding template strands 4. Cell detects and attempts to repair damaged DNA
48
Three parts of a nucleotide
The phosphate, sugar and base. The sugar joins the other two together.
49
How do fragments organize themselves in gel electrophoresis?
They organize themselves based on length, with shorter fragments moving farther.
50
Steps of gel electrophoresis
1. Samples are combined with loading dyes 2. Mixture is placed in a well at one end of the agarose gel 3. Agarose gel is placed in a buffer solution 4. Gel is placed in an electric field. Negative side is at the origin and positive side is at the far end as DNA is negatively charged and will travel away from the negative charge
51
Making recombinant plasmids steps
1. endonuclease cuts plasmid and creates sticky ends, making plasmid linear 2. DNA wanted to be inserted is cut with same endonuclease. This DNA is normally made with reverse transcription 3. foreign DNA and plasmids are mixed and their ends can bond. 4. Ligase is added to make the bond permanent
52
What is the Origin of replication?
The origin of replication is the site which is recognized by DNA replication proteins and triggers DNA synthesis
53
What is a multiple cloning site?
A section of a plasmid with multiple endonuclease cut sites
54
What is a promoter region?
A promoter region is found upstream of they target genes and control the binding of RNA polymerase.
55
Screening and selectable markers.
Screening markers are meant to confirm that the plasmid is recombinant. A selectable marker allows for selection in bacteria.
56
How are recombinant plasmids placed in bacteria?
Using heat shock. The bacterial culture is first placed in an ice bath. Recombinant plasmids with antibiotic resistance are added to the bacterial culture and chilled. The mix is placed in hot water (42 degrees) for 50 seconds. This alters the plasma membrane of bacteria to allow for the plasmid take up. Ice bathed for two minutes. Placed on an agar plate containing the antibiotic the plasmids are resistant to. Bacteria with the plasmid will survive.
57
Difference between Genetically modified and transgenic organisms.
Genetically modified organisms have had their genes altered with technology, but transgenic organisms have had foreign DNA inserted.
58
Steps of protein synthesis
DNA is unzipped and copied as single stranded mRNA which contains codes for amino acids. This is read by the ribosome which tells tRNA which amino acids to collect to make a protein.
59
What is a pathogen?
Microbes that cause disease
60
Cellular vs non-cellular pathogens
Cellular pathogens are living organisms that can reproduce independently. Non-cellular pathogens are non living
61
Describe bacteria
Bacteria are cellular pathogens. They are prokaryotic, and reproduce roughly every half hour. Intra or extra cellular. They have many shapes (like cocci, bacilli and spiral). Some have capsules that defend against phagocytes.
62
How is a bacteria toxic?
Not all bacteria are toxic. Exotoxins are secreted toxins and endotoxins are parts of outer membrane released upon death. Exotoxins are made by gram positive and negative bacteria, but endotoxins are only gram negative.
63
Gram positive vs gram negative bacteria
Gram positive stain purple and have a thick layer of peptidoglycan. Gram negative have a layer of LPS that gives additional anti biotic resistance.
64
What are protozoans?
They are single cell eukaryotes that cause disease in humans.
65
What are fungi?
Eukaryotic plant cells that lack chlorophyll. Take nutrients form others.
66
What are parasites?
Disease causing organisms
67
How do viruses replicate?
They hijack the host cell and force it to produce more viral particles.
68
Describe the structure of a virus.
A virus is genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein shell called a capsid. This is called a nucleocapsid. Some contain an envelope around the nucleocapsid that is taken from the host cell's outer membrane.
69
What are viroids?
They are virions that lack a capsid and are the smallest known pathogen, but only affect plants.
70
What are prions?
Prions are a harmful form of the prion protein that is abundant in nerve cells. It causes the brain proteins to fold in on themselves. Immune system sometimes doesn't recognize as a threat.
71
What is an allergen?
An allergen is an antigen that provokes an unusual and inappropriate reaction within a person's immune system. Many are small highly soluble proteins on the surface of dust.
72
What are antigens?
Antigens are molecules, or parts of a molecule that trigger an adaptive immune system response.
73
Types of antigens on an immune cell.
Self antigens identify cells as 'self'. There are cell surface receptors that identify other body cells to not attack. There are also receptors for foreign antigens to identify and signal for other immune cells to eliminate.
74
Classes of MHC markers
MHC-I is present on all nucleated cell in the body. Identify the cell as a self cell so as not to be attacked by the immune system. MHC-II cells are present on specific white blood cells. Macrophages and dendritic cells present antigens to these markers which bing to helper T-cells to activate an immune response.
75
Innate immunity vs Adaptive immunity
Innate immunity is the non-specific defense mechanisms. The adaptive immune system provides antigen specific responses.
76
Describe aspects of the first line of defense.
The first line of defense is organized to prevent pathogens entering the body. It uses chemical barriers which kill pathogens and physical barriers which block pathogens. It also has microbiological barriers to stop pathogens.
77
Examples of the chemical and physical barriers present in the first line of defense
Chemical barriers include tears, mucus and stomach acid. Physical barriers included skin and throat hairs.
78
Infectious vs non-infectious diseases
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens, but non-infectious diseases are caused by lifestyle or genetics.
79
Contagious vs non-contagious
Contagious diseases can be passed from person to person, but non-contagious diseases cannot.
80
Parts of the second line of defense
A fever, which is an increase in body temperature. Inflammation, which is painful swelling caused by an increase in blood cells in the area. Phagocytes are white blood cels that eat anything they don't recognize, and can squeeze into tissue.
81
Roles of the third line of defense
Identify and destroy pathogens, build long lasting immunity.
82
How do B-cells identify pathogens?
Produce many different antibodies, until they make one that attaches to the unique markers on the surface of the pathogen. It then produces many of them and clones itself into plasma cells to produce more antibodies and memory cells to remember the required antibodies for the infection.
83
How do B cells kill pathogens?
The antibodies prevent pathogens attaching to cells, can bind multiple together to make movement difficult, and tag them for phagocytes to kill. They can also cause cell lysis in the pathogen.
84
What do T-cells do?
They recognize and respond to infected/abnormal cells. There are also memory T-cells
85
Role of helper T-cells
Activate B-cells and cytotoxic T-cells by releasing cytokines that 'rally' immune cells to the infection site
86
Cytotoxic T-cells role
Use MHC-1 molecules to recognize abnormal antigens on cells. Release enzymes to penetrate cell membrane and cause programmed cell death.
87
How to T-cells stop immune response
They are regulated by regulatory T-cells that stop the immune response and prevent auto-immune disease.

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