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biology study notes (year 11) Flashcards

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1
Q

how do stem cells differ from other cells?

A

they are unspecialised, have properties of self renewal and potency

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2
Q

what do stem cells differentiate into? and why?

A

specialised cells to form tissues and organs in multicellular organisms

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3
Q

what is the relationship between surface area and function of gaseous exchange?

A

more surface area = faster rate of diffusion

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4
Q

how does the thickness of cells affect the function of gaseous exchange?

A

thinner surface = faster rate of diffusion

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5
Q

what is the relationship between an extensive capillary system and function of gaseous exchange?

A

larger capillary system surface area = greater amount of diffusion that can occur

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6
Q

how does the structure and function of capillaries facilitate exchange of materials?

A

capillaries are thin (5 micrometers in diameter), composed of only two layers, permeable

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7
Q

what are 3 characteristics of absorptive surfaces within the digestive system and relate them to the structure and function of the villi?

A

large surface area- greater rate of diffusion of nutrients

thin- faster rate of diffusion of nutrients as there is less distance to travel

extensive capillary system- greater amount of nutrients can be absorbed into the blood

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8
Q

what are 3 digestive enzymes?

what is their role?

A

amylase -> carbohydrates
protease -> protein
lipase -> lipids

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9
Q

describe the structure and role of the active site of an enzyme

A

enzyme -> active site -> substrate

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10
Q

what 5 things affect reaction rate of enzymes? and how?

A

temp: decreases either side of optimum
pH: decreases either side of optimum
Substrate concentration: increases until saturation point
Enzyme concentration: increased until saturation point
Inhibitors: molecules that bind to enzymes

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11
Q

3 types of nitrogenous waste?
how toxic are they?
how much water do they use?
how much energy is needed?

A

ammonia (high toxicity and water usage, low energy needed)
urea (low toxicity, medium water usage, medium energy usage)
uric acid (low toxicity and water usage, high energy usage)

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12
Q

what is the function of the nephron?

what are its 6 parts?

A

function: filters urine
1. glomerulus
2. Bowmans capsule
3. proximal tubules
4. distal tubules
5. loop of hence
6. collecting tubule

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13
Q

how does glomerular filtration contribute to the removal of waste

A

glomerular filtration:

  • first step in making urine
  • kidneys use to filter excess fluid and waste products out of blood into collecting tubules of kidney
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14
Q

stomata open when guard cells …

when the stomata is open carbon dioxide … while oxygen …

A

… fill with water

… diffuses in while oxygen diffuses out

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15
Q

how does the leaf facilitate gas exchange? (using carbon dioxide)

A

carbon dioxide:

-diffuses into intercellular spaces of the leaf through the stomata.

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16
Q

what is the relationship between photosynthesis and main tissues of leaves? (4 things)

A
  • surfaces of leaf (epidermis) protect inner layer of cells
  • waxy cuticle reduces evaporation from the leaf
  • palisade mesophyll cells are closely joined, densely packed with chloroplast to help capture maximum sunlight
  • spongy mesophyll cells are below the palisade layer are round and arranged loosely with space for gas exchange
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17
Q

what is the difference between the description and direction of the xylem and phlome tissue?

A

xylem:
- complex tissue
- transports water and minerals from roots to leaves
direction: unidirectional

Phloem:

  • living tissue
  • transports sugars and organic material to the sink
    direction: bidirectional
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18
Q

what is the difference in contents of xylem and phlome?

A

xylem:

  • dead cells
  • water

Phloem:

  • living cells
  • phlome fibres, sieve tubes, companion cells sugars
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19
Q

4 factors affecting rate of transpiration and how?

A

light: inc light = inc rate of transpiration (rot)
(bc it causes stomata to open)

temp: inc temp = inc rot
(bc water mols inc kinetic energy and spread out more)

wind: inc wind = inc rot
(bc it moves saturated air from around the leaf)

humidity: dec humidity = inc rot
(bc there is steeper concentration gradient)

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20
Q

how does selective reabsorption contribute to the removal of waste?

A

selective reabsorption:

  • process that moves solutes and water out of filtrate and back into blood stream.
  • takes place in proximal convoluted tubule
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21
Q

how does secretion contribute to the removal of waste?

A

secretion:

- hydrogen ions, creatinine and drugs are removed from blood and into urine

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22
Q

how does the leaf facilitate gas exchange? (using oxygen)

A

oxygen:

- diffuses out of leaf

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23
Q

how does the leaf facilitate gas exchange? (using water vapour)

A

water vapour:

-through the plant via transpiration through stomata

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24
Q

what is the difference between infectious diseases and non-infectious diseases (are they caused by pathogens, do they spread, how?)

A

infectious diseases are caused by pathogens, they are spread from one to another. viruses, bacteria, protists and parasites

non-infectious diseases, not caused by pathogens, nutritional, environmental, genetic, autoimmune disease

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25
what are prions?
proteins that have the same amino acid sequences as proteins in the brain, they are folded differently, they can change the structure of proteins
26
what is the structure of viruses? are they large or small molecules? what do they surround?
large molecules of protein around nucleic acid
27
what is bacteria? is it a prokaryote or eukaryote. does it have a nucleus or not?
prokaryotic cells, no nucleus
28
is fungi a eukaryote or a prokaryote heterotroph?
eukaryotic heterotrophs
29
are protists eukaryotes or protkaryotes?. multiple cellular or unicellular?
eukaryotes, unicellular
30
what are parasites
invasive organisms
31
what is virulence?
measure of pathogenicity of an organism
32
what are adherence factors?
when a pathogen colonises a new host it must bind to host cell surfaces
33
what aid pathogenesis?
adherence factors and invasion factors
34
what are invasion factors
facilitate bacterial invasion of host
35
what are capsules?
outer structure of bacterial cells
36
what are toxins?
poisonous substances formed during metabolism and growth of certain micro-organisms
37
what is direct contact (mode of transmission)
skin to skin contact
38
what is bodily fluids? (mode of transmission)
sweat, tears, vomit, nasal secretions
39
what is food and waterborne transmission? (mode of transmission)
food and water can be contaminated
40
what are vectors? (mode of transmission)
living organism that transmits pathogens from one host to another
41
what immune responses do vertebrates have?
innate and adaptive
42
why do plants not have an adaptive immune system?
Plants do not have an adaptive immune system due to their lack of both a circulatory system and specialized immune cells.
43
examples of physical defence strategies in plants?
- impenetrable barriers (waxy cuticles) | - seal off damaged tissue to prevent spread of pathogens
44
examples of chemical defence strategies in plants
- breach in barrier =secondary metabolites harm pathogen - produce chemicals, proteins and enzymes that fight pathogens - develop resistance to pathogens
45
what is the innate immune response in vertebrates?
- inflammation to attract white blood cells into tissues | - ingestion of bacteria by white blood cells (phagocytes)
46
what is the process of the inflammatory response?
- tissue damages - pathogens enter - damaged cells release prostaglandins - blood vessels near injury site dilate
47
what are the 2 stages of the immune response?
- humeral response (Antibody mediated immunity) | - cell mediated immunity
48
describe the humeral response
- production and release of antibodies into the blood and lymph - provides protection from bacteria before they enter the bodies cells
49
describe the cell mediated response
- carried out by T cells - provides resistance during intracellular phase of infection - fights parasites
50
describe naturally acquired active immunity
occurs from surviving an infection
51
describe artificially acquired active immunity
vaccination, injection of altered or weakened micro-organism
52
describe passive immunity
administration of antibodies made in another organism (natural=mother, artificial=antivenom)
53
what is homeostasis?
maintenance of relatively constance internal environment
54
what is a stimulus (homeostasis)
detectable change, acts as signal for cells
55
what is a response? (homeostasis)
physiological activity that returns variable to set point
56
what are feed back mechanisms? (homeostasis) when does feed back occur?
- homeostasis is achieved through feedback mechanisms | - occurs when response to stimulus has an effect on original stimulus
57
what is negative feedback?
- deviation away from ideal state - causes response to counteract - returns to set point - stops
58
what are receptors? (homeostasis)
detect or receive stimuli
59
what are chemoreceptors? | internal and external
detect chemicals internal: oxygen, pH, ion levels external: smell, taste (nose and mouth)
60
what are thermoreceptors? | internal and external
detects changes in temp internal: internal temp (hypothalamus) external: air temp on skin
61
what are mechanoreceptors? | internal and external
detects touch and sound internal: pressure, vibrations, balance external: pressure, vibrations, touch and sound
62
what are photoreceptors? | internal and external
detects light external: light in eyes internal: none
63
what are nocireceptors? | internal and external
detects intense chemical, mechanical or thermal stimulation (pain) internal: painful pressure and tension external: painful heat, cold, pressure and light
64
effectors are either...
muscles (contract in response) or glands (produce secretions)
65
what Is tolerance range? (homeostasis)
range of a conditions where enzyme can function
66
what is optimum range?
preferred niche
67
difference in soma between sensory and motor neurone
sensory: soma exists as bulge off to side of soon motor: soma at dendritic end of neutron and axon and dendrites branch directly off it
68
difference in dendrites between sensory and motor neurone
sensory: branch off axons | motor; receive signals from interneurons
69
difference in axon terminals between sensory and motor neurone
sensory: send signals to interneurons motor: form structure to connect to muscles and glands
70
difference in nerve impulses between sensory and motor neurone
sensory: towards CNS motor: away from CNS
71
what are hormones?
chemicals that relay messages and prompt response from target cells displaying specific receptors
72
how do thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms control heat exchange and metabolic activity (structural features)?
brown adipose tissue, increased number of mitochondria per cell, insulation
73
how do thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms control heat exchange and metabolic activity (behavioural responses)?
kleptothermy, hibernation, aestivation and torpor
74
how do thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms control heat exchange and metabolic activity (physiological mechanisms)?
vasomotor control, evaporative heat loss, counter current heat exchange, thermogenesis/metabolic activity from organs and tissues
75
how do thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms control heat exchange and metabolic activity (homeostatic mechanisms)?
thyroid hormones, insulin
76
what are endotherms?
organisms whose heat is generated internally from metabolic activity
77
what are osmoconformers?
organisms that maintain an internal environment with its external environment
78
what are osmoregulators?
organism that actively controls internal salt and water concentrations in the external environment
79
what are xerophytes? what are their adaptations? (5)
plants adapted to dry conditions - waxy cuticle - reduced number of stomata onto of leaf as it to not let water evaporate - sunken stomata - reduced amount of leaves - cylindrical or rolled leaves and hair
80
what are mesophytes?
plants that grown in enrolments wit medium access to water
81
what are hydrophytes?
plants adapted to aquatic conditions
82
what are halophytes? and there adaptations?
plants that are adapted to salty conditions - actively take up salt at roots to promote. uptake of water from soil by osmosis - similar structural adaptations to xerophytes (thick waxy cuticle, reduced leaf surface area, thick leaves, sunken stomata and epidermal hairs)
83
what is the formula for population growth rate?
(birth + immigrants) - (deaths + emigrants)
84
how do you use the Lincoln index to estimate population size in a closed population
``` Lincoln index (N): size of populations (N) = m x n/m M= number originally marked N= total number captured in the second sample m= number of receipted (marked individuals in the second sample ```
85
biodiversity includes...
diverse species and ecosystems
86
explain limiting factors to the carrying capacity (biotic and abiotic)?
biotic: - inc predators - dec food abiotic - drought - fire
87
define species richness
- number of different species in ecological community - a count of species - does not take into account the abundance of species or relative abundance distributions
88
define species evenness (relative species abundance)
how common or rare a species is relative to other species in a defined location
89
define percentage cover
- method of determining relative abundance | - based on the amount of space they take up
90
define percentage frequency
probability that a species will be found within single quadrat
91
define simpsons diversity index
- takes into account the number of species present and relative abundance - as species richness and evenness increase, diversity increases
92
define biodiversity
the variety of plant and animal life in a particular habitat
93
define biomass
plant or animal material used for energy production

biology (3 decks)

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