biology year 1 Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
What is taxonomy?
A
The theory and practice or identification and naming of organisms
2
Q
What are the 2 main objectives of Taxonomy?
A
To sort out closely related organisms and assign them to separate species
Order species into broader categories
3
Q
What are the taxonomic classification groups?
A
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.
4
Q
What are the 5 Kingdoms?
A
Animals, plants, fungi, protoctists and Prokaryotes
5
Q
What is the circulatory system?
A
3 independent systems including the heart, lungs, arteries, veins, coronary and portal vessels. Its responsible for the flow of blood, nutrients, oxygen and other gases as well as hormones to and from cells
6
Q
What is diffusion?
A
Diffusion is the net movement of anything from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
7
Q
The functions of the circulatory system are?
A
- Carryoxygenfrom lungs to all the cells in the body.
- CarryCO2 from the body to the lungsfor removal.
- Transport nutrients and water around the body.
thermoregulation. - Transport waste products to the kidneys for excretion.
- To transport hormones.
8
Q
What is the structure of the heart?
A
A muscular pump to create pressure tocirculate the blood
9
Q
What is the function of the Blood vessels?
A
- Arteries –carry oxygenated blood
- Capillaries-allow blood diffusion
- Veins –carry deoxygenated blood
10
Q
What is the structure of the blood?
A
Transport mechanism made up of plasma, red and white blood cells and platelets
11
Q
What are the functions of the blood?
A
- Transport of nutrients and oxygen to thetissues
- Transport endocrine secretions
- Removal of waste products
- Temperature regulation
- Regulate acidity in the body
- Regulate water content
- Defenseagainst micro-organisms
- Immunity to disease
12
Q
What is hematopoiesis?
A
The process through which the body manufactures blood cells. It begins early in the development of an embryo and continues for the life of an individual
13
Q
What is plasma?
A
Liquid part of the blood - serum with dissolved substances such as carbon dioxide, amino acids,glucose and fatty acids that also contains waste materials such as urea, hormones, enzymesandantibodies.
Acts as a buffer to maintainpH
14
Q
What is the structure of red blood cells?
A
- Contain a protein calledhemoglobinwitch Oxygen binds to.
- No nucleus or mitochondria (rely on anaerobic metabolism) = space for morehemoglobin
- Bi-concave shape = more surface area.- can travel alongcapillaries
15
Q
What are platelets?
A
- Formed from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. Aid blood clot formation duringhaemostasis
- Function of clot is to prevent further blood loss and entry of infective agents.
- When a blood vessel is damaged the platelets become sticky (Von Willebrand factor) and forma platelet plug.
16
Q
What are the white blood cells?
A
-Fight disease, destroy germs and remove dead tissue.
Main types are:
-Lymphocytes – found in lymph, simple nucleus and clear cytoplasm
-Monocytes – Same as above but larger
Granulocytes – Irregular nucleus, granular cytoplasm
17
Q
What are the arteries and what do they do?
A
- Carry blood from theheart
- Usuallyoxygenated blood except thepulmonary artery which carries deoxygenatedblood to thelungs
- Thick muscular walls – needed due to highpressure of blood being pumped from theheart
- Resistance vessels – store pressure to evenout bloodpressure.
- Divide into arterioles which are slightlysmaller
18
Q
What are the veins and what do they do?
A
- Carry blood to the heart
- Thinner than arteries due to lower bloodpressure
- Valves present to prevent backflow of blood
- Skeletal muscle movement and the digitalcushion assists movement of blood throughthe veins, especially in the lower leg
- Hence legs may become filled when horsestabled for long period of time
- Swelling disperses when movement commences
19
Q
What are the capillaries and what do they do?
A
- Walls one cell thick to enhance diffusion
- Exchange of gases, uptake of nutrients andremoval of metabolic waste products takeplace
- Capillary beds form the junction between thesmall veins and arteries – venules andarterioles
20
Q
Describe the actions of the blood flow through the right side the heart
A
Deoxygenated bloodreturning from the rest of the body iscarried to the right atrium of the heart via the vena cava.
When full the atrium walls contract and propel bloodthrough the tricuspid valve into the rightventricle.
Ventricular contraction and increased pressure forcesblood through the semi-lunar valves into the pulmonaryartery which transports it to the lungs – picks up O2frominspired air.
When ventricle relaxes, semi-lunar valves close to preventbackflow of blood.
21
Q
Describe the actions of the blood flow through the left side of the heart
A
From thelungsoxygenated bloodis carried in thepulmonary veinback to the heart.
When full, left atrium contracts and forces blood throughthe bicuspid valve into the left ventricle.
Ventricle walls contract and push blood through the semi-lunar valves into the aorta, the main artery of the body.
Hence, LHS of heart is more muscular than RHS.
Tendinous cords attached to the atrio-ventricular valvespull on the two or three flaps and prevent them from turninginside out.
22
Q
What are the turbinate bones?
A
The function of theturbinate bones are tomoisten, warm andfilter the inspired airbefore it enters thelower respiratorytract.
Expand surface area toincrease number ofcells in contact with airduringinhale
23
Q
What is the Pharynx?
A
- Located caudally toboth oral and nasalcavities
- Common structure toboth respiratory anddigestive system
24
Q
What is the Larynx?
A
-Location: Lying betweenboth mandibles
-Consists of hyaline cartilage,fibrous tissue, muscle, andmucous membrane
-Suspended from the skull bya structure called the hyoid apparatus
25
What is the trachea?
A non-collapsible tube extending from the larynx to the point of division into the left and right bronchi.
26
What is the bronchi?
At the level of the 5th rib, the trachea divides into 2 bronchi. This is termed the tracheal bifurcation
Primary bronchi: divide into small secondary bronchi
Continue branching into even smaller tertiary bronchi
27
What are the bronchioles?
Bronchioles are air passages inside the lungs that branch off like tree limbs from the bronchi. The bronchioles deliver air to tiny sacs called alveoli where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged
28
Which parts of the respiratory system are part of the upper and lower systems?
Upper: Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi.
Lower: bronchioles and alveoli
29
What are Alveoli?
Bronchioles continue to branch into alveolar ducts
Each duct containing several alveolar sacs
Each sac consisting of many alveoli
The alveoli are tiny air sacs within the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
30
What are the lungs?
Right and left – the right having + 1 lobe
Located in the thorax either side of the mediastinum
Covered by pulmonary pleura and enclosed within the pleural cavity
31
What is the diaphragm?
A dome shaped muscular partition separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities
Contraction causes inspiration due to volume expansion of thorax.
32
How does ventilation work?
Inhalation and Exhalation
This is by contraction of the Diaphragm and relaxing of this muscle.
Contraction of the Intercostal Muscles’ and relaxing of muscle.
Brings in oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide
33
How does oxygen enter the blood?
Inhaled oxygen enters the lungs and reaches the alveoli.
The layers of cells lining the alveoli and the surrounding capillaries are each only one cell thick and are in very close contact with each other. Through diffusion
34
Where does gaseous exchange happen?
Gaseous exchange occurs at the alveoli in the lungs and takes place by diffusion. The alveoli are surrounded by capillaries so oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries.
35
What is the Respiratory system?
Your respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. This system helps your body absorb oxygen from the air so your organs can work. It also cleans waste gases, such as carbon dioxide, from your blood. Common problems include allergies, diseases or infections.
36
What is the reproductive system?
a collection of organs and a network of hormone production that work together to create life
37
What is the structure of the reproductive system in females?
in women, the reproductive system includes the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the cervix, and the vagina.
38
What is the function of the reproductive system in males?
external organs include the penis, scrotum and testicles. Internal organs include the vas deferens, prostate and urethra.
39
What is the structure of the ovaries?
2 of them. Grows within a follicle until mature. Small organs located on each side of the uterus in the pelvic cavity
40
What is the purpose of the ovaries?
To produce eggs through the process of oogenesis. Oestrogen is also produced here
41
What is the structure of the uterus?
Made up of the horns, body and cervix. Thick muscular walls called endometrium, helps support a fertilised egg.
42
What is the purpose of the uterus?
Holds a fertilised egg in place during implantation and development through gestation.
43
What is the structure of the vagina?
Tube creating an acidic environment to prevent infection
44
What is the purpose of the vagina?
Place where sperm can enter the female during mating
45
What is the structure of the Vulva?
External opening of the urogenital tract.
46
What is the purpose of the vulva?
enlarges when female is in oestrus as visual stimulant
47
What is the structure of the Cervix?
Narrow opening between the vagina and the uterus
48
What is the purpose of the Cervix?
Acts as a plug to prevent pathogens entering the uterus. Dilates during parturition to allow offspring to pass
49
What is the structure of the Scrotum?
Contains the testes, large sac like structure
50
What is the purpose of the scrotum?
Muscles help to raise and lower the testes to keep them at the optimum temperature
51
What is the structure of the Penis?
Covered in elastic skin called the prepuce or sheath
52
What is the purpose of the penis?
Contains many blood vessels to become erect so it can enter the vagina
53
What is the structure of the vas deferens?
Aka sperm duct. A narrow and muscular tube
54
What is the purpose of the vas deferens?
Sperm travel through from the testes to the urethra
55
What is the structure of the testes?
Located within the scrotum outside of the body to maintain optimum temperature
56
What is the purpose of the testes?
Produces sperm through spermatogenesis via meiosis. Testosterone is also produced here
57
What is the structure of the prostate gland?
Small gland which produces semen
58
What is the purpose of the prostate gland?
Fluid which buffers the acidity of the vagina, acts as a medium to transport sperm and contains sugars as a source of energy for sperm
59
What is the structure of the urethra?
Thin tube-like structure
60
What is the purpose of the urethra?
Carries sperm out of the body. Also carries urine out of the body
61
What is the structure of the oviduct/fallopian tube?
part of the genital tract. They have a wall of smooth muscle, an inner mucosal lining and an outer layer of loose supporting tissue
62
What is the purpose of the oviduct/ fallopian tube?
provide a suitable environment for fertilization, and transport the egg from the ovary, where it is produced, to the lumen
63
What is the structure of the bulbus glandus?
an erectile tissue structure on the penis of canid mammals. During mating, immediately before ejaculation the tissues swell up to lock
64
What is the purpose of the bulbus glandus?
To complete the “coital tie”, which keeps the male and female dogs somewhat locked together until mating is complete.
65
What is the structure of the epididymis?
narrow, tightly-coiled tube connecting rear of the testicles to the vas deferens. The epididymis consists of three parts: head, body, and tail.
66
What is the purpose of the epididymis?
responsible for sperm concentration, maturation (including sperm motility acquisition and fertilizing ability), protection and storage
67
What is the structure of the prepuce?
circumferential flap of highly vascular skin largely covering the glans penis.
68
What is the purpose of the prepuce?
provides adequate skin and mucosa to cover the entire penis during erection.
69
What is the reproductive system differences for whales, dolphins and porpoise?
female cetaceans have two ovaries, a uterus, a vagina and, during gestation, a placenta. In toothed whales, one of the two ovaries is larger and used more than the other. The uterus is bicornuate, unlike that of humans, which is composed of a single cavity.
70
What is the reproductive system difference for cats?
Unlike the pear-shaped simplex, or one-part, uterus of the human, the uterus of the cat is Y-shaped and consists of a uterine body from which two uterine horns diverge. Such an enlarged uterus enables the animal to produce litters.
71
What is the reproductive system difference for pigs?
The vagina and urethra open into a common tube that serves both reproductive and urinary functions in female pigs. This is different from human females where the vagina and urethra exit the body via separate openings.
72
What is GnRH?
The Gonadotrophin releasing hormone made in the hypothalamus and stimulates the release of FSH & LH from the pituitary gland. seen in the late anoestrus stage of the oestrus cycle.
73
What is FSH?
The follicle stimulating hormone made in the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates on egg cell to grow and mature inside the follicle. Is seen in the late anoestrus and metoestrus stages of the oestrus cycle.
74
What is LH?
The Luteinising hormone made in the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates ovulation aswell as progesterone and oestrogen production. Is seen in the late anoestrus, oestrus and metoestrus stages in the oestrus cycle
75
What is oestrogen?
Hormone made in the ovarian follicles and stimulates oestrus behaviours (aggression), low levels inhibit LH and FSH. High levels stimulate LH production. Seen in the proestrus and oestrus stages of the oestrus cycle
76
What is Progesterone?
Hormone made in the corpus luteum gland and inhibits FSH and LH aswell as maintains the uterus lining to support gestation
77
What is oxytocin?
Hormone Made in the posterior pituitary gland and acts on mammary glands to stimulate milk production aswell as stimulates contractions of smooth muscle in the uterus during parturition.
78
Define copulation?
Sexual intercourse
79
Define fertilization
when a sperm cell successfully meets an egg cell in the fallopian tube. Once fertilization takes place, this newly fertilized cell is called a zygote
80
Define implantation
the attachment of the fertilized egg to the wall of the uterus at the start of pregnancy.
81
Define gestation
the process of an embryo developing inside the womb between conception and birth.
82
Define parturition
Process of giving birth
83
What is the excretory system?
The system of an organism’s body that performs the process of discharging waste products from the body. The organs involved include lungs, liver, kidneys and large intestine.
84
What is the structure of the kidneys?
The hilum is the site where the renal artery enters the kidney and both the renal vein and ureter exit. Each kidney consists of an outer cortex, a middle medulla, and an inner hollow basin called the renal pelvis.
Inside the medulla and extended outwards into the cortex are approx. 1 million tubules called nephrons.
85
What is function of the kidneys?
Kidneys filter out toxins, excess salts, and urea. Urea is synthesized in the liver and transported through the blood to the kidneys for removal.
86
What is the function of the ureters?
narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys
87
What is the function of the bladder?
Elastic organ that holds urine before it is removed from the body via the urethra
88
What is the urethra?
Thin tube that carries urine out of the body. Also carries semen out of the body in make mammals
89
What is the musculoskeletal system?
The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, muscles, joints, tendons and ligaments which all work together to provide the body with support, protection, and movement
90
What are long bones?
hard and dense bones that provide strength, structure, and mobility. They are longer than they are wide. Structure is most recognizable in the bones of the arms (humerus, radius, and ulna) and legs (femur, tibia, and fibula)
91
What are short bones?
Allow skill and ease in movement. The bones in the wrists and ankles. Are cube-shaped.
92
What are flat bones?
Thin, flat, and curved bones that protect the organs. Such bones include the ribs and sternum (breastbone), the skull, pelvic bones, and scapulae (shoulder blades).
93
What are irregular bones?
irregularly shaped bones with various bony projections and features that interact with other bones. These bones provide sites for muscle attachment and allow various degrees of movement and flexibility, along with some support. They include the hip bones, vertebrae in the spinal column, and various bones in the skull.
94
What are pneumatic bones?
Contain air spaces known as sinuses.
Function - conditioning of inspired air, regulation of intranasal pressure, reduce weight, help with voice resonance. Skull is the only example
95
What are the 3 types of skeleton?
Hydrostatic, exoskeleton, endoskeleton
96
What are the two division of the skeleton?
Axial and appendicular
97
What is the endocrine system?
A network of glands and organs located throughout the body that uses chemical messengers called hormones.
It is responsible for regulating a range of bodily functions through the release of hormones
98
What is homeostasis?
A self-regulating process by which biological systems maintain stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.
99
how do hormones maintain homeostasis of sugar within the body?
Insulin and glucagon help maintain a state called homeostasis in which conditions inside the body remain steady. When blood sugar is too high, the pancreas secretes more insulin to help use glucose. When blood sugar levels drop, the pancreas releases glucagon to raise them
100
how do hormones maintain homeostasis of water within the body?
When the body is low in water, the pituitary gland secretes vasopressin into the bloodstream. It stimulates the kidneys to conserve water and excrete less urine. When the body has excess water, the pituitary gland secretes a smaller amount of vasopressin, enabling the kidneys to excrete excess water in the urine
101
What are extracellular signaling molecules?
They are cues such as growth factors, hormones and neurotransmitters, designed to transmit specific information to target cells.
102
What are cell surface receptors?
Cell surface receptors are receptors that are embedded in the plasma membrane of cells. They act in cell signalling by receiving extracellular molecules.
103
what is the difference between circulating and local hormones?
Hormones that travel in blood and act on distant target cells are called circulating hormones or endocrines. Hormones that act locally without first entering the blood stream are called local hormones.
104
What is negative feedback?
When the body detects a change and then works to counteract the change
105
What is positive feedback?
When the body detects a change and then works to further increase that change
106
What is the function of the pineal gland?
To secrete melatonin into the blood to control sleep and wake cycles
107
What is the structure of the pineal gland?
a small gland near the centre of the brain
108
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
Maintain homeostasis and is the link between the endocrine system and nervous system. It is highly involved with the pituitary gland, when it receives a signal from the nervous system, it secretes neurohormones that start and stop the secretion or pituitary hormones.
109
What is the structure of the hypothalamus?
found towards the base of the brain, below the thalamus, above the pituitary gland and brain stem. It is about the size of an almond
110
What is the function of the pituitary gland?
help regulate the functions of other endocrine glands. Helps secrete FSH, LH, oxytocin and prolactin
111
What is the structure of the pituitary gland?
pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the Sella turcica. It is composed of two lobes: anterior and posterior, with the intermediate lobe that joins the two regions.
112
What is the function of the thyroid gland?
To secrete thyroxine, triiodothyronine and calcitonin.
113
What is the structure of the thyroid gland?
butterfly-shaped organ split into two halves and is located in the base of your neck. The two lobes are connected by the isthmus
114
What is the structure of the pituitary gland?
pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the Sella turcica. It is composed of two lobes: anterior and posterior, with the intermediate lobe that joins the two regions.
115
What is the function of the pineal gland?
to receive information about the state of the light-dark cycle from the environment and convey this information to produce and secrete the hormone melatonin
116
What is the function of the parathyroid gland?
To produce the parathyroid hormone which controls calcium levels in bones and blood
117
What is the structure of the parathyroid gland?
two pairs of small, oval-shaped glands. They are located next to the two thyroid gland lobes in the neck. Each gland is usually about the size of a pea
118
What is the function of the Pancreas?
Helps control the balance of blood glucose.
- produces glucagon to help increase levels of blood glucose
- produces insulin to help reduce blood glucose
119
What is the structure of the Pancreas?
an elongated, tapered organ located across the back of the belly, behind the stomach. Consists of a head, a body and a tail.
120
What is the function of the Adrenal glands?
- To produce adrenaline which increases blood pressure, heart rate and metabolism in reaction to stress
- to produce aldosterone which controls the body's salt and water balance
- to produce cortisol which plays a part in stress response
- To produce DHEA which aids in production of body odor and body hair growth during puberty
121
What is the structure of the Adrenal glands?
a pair of endocrine glands that sit above the kidneys. They have two layers; the outer(cortex) and the inner(medulla).
122
What is the function of the Ovaries in the endocrine system?
- to produce progesterone to help prepare the body for pregnancy when an egg is fertilised
- to produce testosterone to help sex drive and body density
- to produce estrogen to help regulate the menstrual cycle and maintain pregnancy
123
What is the function of the testes in the endocrine system?
to produce testosterone to help body density as well as aid the development of male sex characteristics
