Biopsychology

Question 1

What does the nervous system consist of?

Answer 1

CNS =

brain and spinal cord.

PNS =

autonomic and somatic nervous system (rest of the body).

Question 2

What is the CNS?

Answer 2

• The cerebral cortex is highly developed in humans and distinguishes us from animals.
• The spinal cord is an extension of the brain and is responsible for reflex actions.
• The spinal cord connects nerves to the PNS.

Question 3

What is the functions of the somatic nervous system (SNS)?

Answer 3

• Carries info from sensory organs to the CNS.
• Controls muscle movement via motor neurons.
• Controls voluntary movements.

Question 4

The SNS is the body’s link to the…

Answer 4

Outside world.

Question 5

What is the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Answer 5

1). Governs vital involuntary bodily functions.

• Heartbeat.
• Respiration, digestion.
• Breathing.
• Sexual arousal.
• Stress response.

2). Operates automatically.

Question 6

What is the ANS divided into?

Answer 6

• Sympathetic nervous system =

prepares body for action/stress - “flight or fight”.

• Parasympathetic nervous system =

calms the body - “rest and digest”.

Question 7

What does the CNS do?

Answer 7

• Monitors and coordinates internal organ function.
• Responds to changes in the external environment.
• Receives and sends info to the PNS.

Question 8

What is a sensory neuron?

Answer 8

• Carries electrical impulses from receptors to the CNS.

Question 9

Where are sensory receptors found?

Answer 9

In various locations in the body;

• Eyes
• Tongue
• Skin
• Ears

Question 10

What is a motor neuron?

Answer 10

• Carries electrical impulses from the CNS to the effector.

- They release neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on the muscle that trigger muscle movement.

Question 11

What is a relay neuron?

Answer 11

• Carries info between sensory and motor neurons, allowing them to communicate.
• Located mainly in the CNS, not PNS.

Question 12

What is a neurotransmitter?

Answer 12

A packet of chemicals stored within the axon of a neuron;

• They enable nerve impulses to pass across the synaptic cleft.

They are the chemicals that communicate info throughout our body and brain.

Question 13

What is ‘action potential’?

Answer 13

1) . The dendrite receives info from a neuron (axon terminal).
2) . Info is passed down the cell body to the axon.
3) . Travels down the axon to the axon terminal, in the form of an electrical impulse.
4) . Neurotransmitters are released form their synaptic vesicle, and diffused across the synaptic cleft.
5) . Once on the receptor, the chemical (neurotransmitter) is turned back into an electrical message.

Question 14

What are inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters?

Answer 14

1) . Inhibitory = calms the brain.
e. g. serotonin, GABA.
2) . Excitatory = stimulates the brain.
e. g. adrenaline, noradrenaline.

Question 15

How do inhibitory neurotransmitters work?

Answer 15

Inhibits activity of the postsynaptic nerve;

• Decreases activation in the CNS.

Question 16

How do excitatory neurotransmitters work?

Answer 16

Activates the postsynaptic nerve.

• Increases neural activation in the CNS.

Question 17

How does the endocrine system work?

Answer 17

Network of glands secrete chemical messages known as hormones.

• CNS instructs glands to release hormones in the bloodstream.

Question 18

What are the endocrine glands?

Answer 18

1) . Pituitary.
2) . Adrenal.
3) . Testes/ovaries.
4) . Thyroid/parathyroid.
5) . Pineal.

Question 19

What are the 2 different parts of the pituitary gland?

Answer 19

1). Anterior (front) =

produces ACTH as a response to stress.

2). Posterior (back) =

releases different hormones that target different parts of the body.

Question 20

What does the adrenal medulla do/secrete?

Answer 20

• Acts as an acute stress response (sympathetic arousal in ANS).
• It secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline.
• Adrenaline provides a flight or fight response.

Question 21

What does the adrenal cortex do/secrete?

Answer 21

• ACTH causes adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroids (cortisol).
• This is a chronic stress response.
• Cortisol causes liver to release stored glucose and inhibits inflammation.

Question 22

What is the SAM system?

Answer 22

Arouses flight or fight;

• body notices stress through sensory signals.
• amygdala sends distress signal to hypothalamus.
• hypothalamus tells pituitary to activate the sympathetic response.
• adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline.
• glycogen stored in liver is converted to glucose.
• after stressor seizes, parasympathetic arousal occurs.

Question 23

What is the HPAA?

Answer 23

Chronic stress response;

• hypothalamus releases CRF to stimulate pituitary.
• pituitary releases ACTH, which travels in the blood to the adrenal cortex.
• adrenal cortex releases cortisol.
• cortisol increases the release of glucose in the liver so that the body can maintain blood sugar levels when stressed.

Question 24

Name the 4 lobes in the brain?

Answer 24

1). Frontal = motor cortex

damage may result in loss of control over fine movements.

2). Parietal = somatosensory cortex

amount of somatosensory devoted to a body part determines it’s sensitivity.

3). Temporal = auditory cortex

damage may result in hearing loss.

4). Occipital = visual cortex.

each eye sends info from right visual field to left cortex, vice versa.

Question 25

Name the 2 areas of the brain responsible for language?

Answer 25

1). Broca's area = - frontal lobe. - left hemisphere. - responsible for SPEECH PRODUCTION. 2) . Wernicke area = - temporal lobe. - left hemisphere. - responsible for LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION.

Question 26

What is meant by localisation of function?

Answer 26

- Theory argued by Broca and Wernicke. - That different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions. Opposite of holistic theory.

Question 27

What is the outer layer of the brain called, and what is it's characteristics?

Answer 27

Cerebral cortex = - grey due to the location of cell bodies. - about 3mm thick.

Question 28

What is also outlined in localisation of function?

Answer 28

The different areas and cortex's of the cerebral cortex.

Question 29

Describe 1 study in which localisation of function was involved?

Answer 29

Tulving et al. (1944) = study on LTM revealing that semantic and episodic memory are in different parts of the pre-frontal cortex.

Question 30

What are the evaluations of localisation of function in the brain?

Answer 30

1). Brain scan evidence = showed areas of the brain. 2). Neurosurgical evidence = still used or extreme cases of OCD and depression. 3). Case study evidence = Phineas Gage. 4). Lashley's research.

Question 31

What brain scan evidence is there for localisation of function?

Answer 31

1). Peterson et al. used brain scans to show Wernicke area was active during a listening task, and Broca during a reading task. 2). Tulving et al. research.

Question 32

What neurosurgical evidence is there for localisation of function?

Answer 32

Destroying areas of the brain to control behaviour was shown by; Dougherty et al = - 44 OCD patients with cingulotomy (lesioning the cingulate gyrus) - after 32 weeks, 1/3 met full criteria, and 14% partially met it.

Question 33

What is Phineas Gage's case?

Answer 33

- Suffered brain damage from a pole going trhough his frontal lobe. - His temperament changed to being rude - suggesting the frontal lobe is responsible for regulating mood.

Question 34

What is Lashley's research?

Answer 34

Removed 10-50% of rat's cortex. - no area was more important in learning a maze. - contradicts localisation = learning is holistic.

Question 35

What is meant by plasticity in the brain?

Answer 35

AKA neuroplasticity = - describes the brains tendency to change and adapt (functionally and physically) as a result of experience and new learning.

Question 36

What did Gopnick et al. find about synaptic pruning?

Answer 36

- 15,000 synaptic connections at age 2-3. - as we age, some die and frequently used ones strengthen (pruning). - this is a result of changes and learning.

Question 37

What does Maguire et al. find in relation to neuroplasticity?

Answer 37

- Increased grey matter in posterior hippocampus - related to development of spatial and navigational skills. - Learning London helped prune their synapses.

Question 38

What did Draganski et al. find in relation to neuroplasticity?

Answer 38

- Imaged student's brains 3 months before and after exams. | - Found changes in parietal cortex and posterior hippocampus.

Question 39

Who else supports plasticity?

Answer 39

1). Mechelli et al. = larger parts of parietal lobe in bilingual people.

Question 40

What is functional recovery of the brain after trauma?

Answer 40

A form of plasticity, usually after trauma. - Unaffected areas of the brain are often able to adapt and compensate for those areas that are damaged.

Question 41

How does functional recovery work?

Answer 41

Brain 'rewires' itself = - new synapses form close to the damaged area. - unused secondary neural pathways activate and enable functioning to continue.

Question 42

What are the other structural changes of functional recovery?

Answer 42

1). Axon sprouting = growth of new nerve endings, creating new neural pathways. 2) . Reformation of blood vessels. 3) . Recruitment of homologous = areas on the opposite side of the brain to perform specific tasks.

Question 43

What are the evaluations of plasticity and functional recovery?

Answer 43

1) . Practical application. 2) . Negative plasticity. 3) . Age and plasticity (easier to recover as a child). 4) . Support from animal studies.

Question 44

What practical application is there for plasticity and functional recovery.

Answer 44

Neurorehabilitation = movement therapy after stroke to aid functional recovery.

Question 45

Explain negative plasticity?

Answer 45

Phantom limb syndrome = 60-80% of amputees experience this pain due to changes in somatosensory cortex.

Question 46

Explain age and plasticity?

Answer 46

(Easier to recover as a child) = Bezzola et al. = 40 years of golf training changed neural representations of movements in 40-60 year olds.

Question 47

What animal studies support plasticity and functional recovery?

Answer 47

Hubel and Weisel = sewing kittens eye shut --> still processed info from open eye. - shows how loss of function leads to compensatory activity in the brain - neural plasticity.

Question 48

What is hemispheric lateralisation?

Answer 48

- Idea that the 2 hemispheres are functionally different. | - Certain mental processes are controlled by one hemisphere and not the other (language = left).

Question 49

Describe Sperry's split brain research?

Answer 49

- Investigated 11 participants who had a commisurotomy to inhibit epilepsy. - Quasi-experiment (natural). - Wanted to see if the hemispheres were specialised for certain functions.

Question 50

Outline Sperry's 'recognition by touch'?

Answer 50

Recognition by touch = - LVF --> could not name object but select a matching object (info going to RH). - Left hand could select a matching object to that shown in the LVF (info going to RH). patients couldn't verbally say the object that was needed (as LH is needed --> language centre).

Question 51

Outline Sperry's 'composite words'?

Answer 51

- Key presented to LVF (info going to RH). - Ring presented to RVF (info going to LH). Found; - Writes key with with left hand (info goes to RH). - But says the word ring (info form RVF goes to LH).

Question 52

What is Sperry's conclusions?

Answer 52

- Studies support hemispheric lateralisation. - Each hemisphere can operate as a separate 'brain' if the corpus callosum is severed. - He argues that each hemisphere has its own perceptions, memories and experiences.