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Bios 355 Flashcards

1
Q

Peripheral nerves

A

Efferent nerves

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2
Q

Autonomic nerves

A

Control everything but skeletal muscle

Sympathetic and parasympathetic branch

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3
Q

Somatic motor neurons

A 
Control skeletal muscle 
Single neuron 
Always excitatory 
Forms neural and muscular junction
NT is always Ach 
Target muscle expresses nicotinic cholinergic receptors 
No varicosities 
Neuromuscular junction is the synapse of a somatic motor neuron on a muscle fiber
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4
Q

Pre-ganglionic neurons

A

Can have many collateral axons that stimulate many post-ganglionic neurons

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5
Q

Sympathetic branch

A

Post ganglionic neuron releases norepinephrine at the target
Target expresses adrenergic receptors aka G-protein coupled receptors

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6
Q

Parasympathetic branch

A

Post-ganglionic neurons releases Ach onto the target

Target expresses the muscorinic cholinergic receptor (G-protein coupled receptor)

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7
Q

Sympathetic pre ganglion neurons

A

Originate in thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord

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8
Q

Parasympathetic pre ganglion neuron

A

Originate in sacral region of spinal cord

Cranial nerves

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9
Q

Adrenal medulla

A

Pre ganglionic sympathetic stimulates

Medulla are modified post ganglionic neurons

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10
Q

Post ganglionic neurons

A

Release epinephrine directly into blood

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11
Q

Cholinergic receptors

A

Bind Ach

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12
Q

Nicotinic cholinergic receptor

A

Ligand-gated Na channels

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13
Q

Muscorinic cholinergic receptor

A

G-protein coupled

Open Ca and potassium channels

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14
Q

Adrenergic receptors

A

G-protein coupled

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15
Q

Alpha adrenergic receptors

A 
Most common
Bind to NE 
Cause increase in Ca (smooth muscle contraction) 
Alpha 1: sympathetic target tissue 
activates phospholipase C
Cause contraction or secretion 
Alpha 2: GI tract and pancreas 
Decreases cAMP 
Cause relaxation (dilate)
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16
Q

Beta 1 adrenergic receptors

A

Cardiac/kidney
Respond to both NE and epinephrine
Increase in cAMP (intracellular signal)

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17
Q

Beta 2

A

In locations that lack sympathetic neurons
Respond to epinephrine
Increase cAMP
(Response: dilate vascular smooth muscle)

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18
Q

Beta 3

A

Adipose tissue
Increase cAMP
Bind to NE over epinephrine
Response: mobilize lipid storage

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19
Q

Properties of a sensory system

A
  1. Selective stimulus
  2. Receptor
  3. Receptor will convert the stimuli into a voltage change
  4. If voltage change exceeds threshold an AP is generated
  5. Afferent neuron delivers AP to the CNS
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20
Q

Chemoreceptors

A 
Taste 
Olfaction 
pH
Oxygen 
Glucose
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21
Q

Mechanoreceptors (physical or manual stimuli)

A 
Pressure 
Bending 
Tactile 
Hearing 
Blood pressure (baro receptors) 
Equilibrium 
Lung inflation/deflation 
Progress through the GI tract 
Proprioception (position of limbs) 
Osmolarity (water concentration)
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22
Q

Types of receptors (afferent sensors)

A 
Chemoreceptors (chemical)
Mechanoreceptors (physical)
Photo receptors (light)
Thermal receptors (heat)
Nociceptors (pain)
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23
Q

Tonic receptors

A

Continue to transmit signals as long as stimulus is present

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24
Q

Phasic receptors

A 
Habituate rapidly (cease firing AP if the stimulus is prolonged) 
Fire AP again when stimulus is removed
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25
Tactile receptors
Skin Viscera Mechanosensative cation channels > Na influx > voltage change > initiates AP
26
Styles of tactile receptors
``` Free nerve endings (variable responses) Meissner corpuscles (flutter/superficial/adapts rapidly) Parcinion corpuscles (vibration/deeper layers of skin/phasic) Ruffini corpuscles (stretch/deep/tonic) Merkel receptor (steady pressure/superficial/tonic) ```
27
Sensory cell v-gated Ca channels
Trp channels (transient receptor potential)
28
Two types of pain neurons
``` Fast pain (delta fibers, fast AP) Slow pain (c-fibers, slower AP) ```
29
Capsacius
Binds to trp channels
30
Chemoreceptors
Smell | Taste
31
Olfaction
Nasal epithelia olfactory receptors G-protein coupled receptors Activate (cause an increase in cAMP > cause ion channels to open) Discrimination between different odorant molecules to the receptors Lead to hippocampus and amygdala Olfactory cortex Smell evokes memory
32
Taste
``` Salty Sweet Sour Bitter Umami (savory) All non-spiking neurons ```
33
Bitter
Receptor is coupled to a G-protein PLC Type 2 taste receptor
34
PLC
``` Liberates IP3 IP3 binds to Ca channels on the ER Channel opens Ca into cytoplasm Synaptic vesicle fuse and release NT ```
35
Sour
``` Decrease in pH causes potassium channels to close Activates v-gated Ca channels Ca in Causes vesicles to fuse > release NT Type 3 taste receptor ```
36
Salty
Receptor has open Na channels facing surface of tongue Increase in NaCl in saliva, Na enters the sensor, Na influx causes depolarization Activate v-gated Ca channels Ca in Synaptic vesicles fuse > release NT Type 1 taste receptor
37
Sweet
``` G-protein coupled receptor Activates adenylyl cyclase cAMP causes potassium channel to close Cause depolarization Activate v-gated Ca channels Ca in Synaptic vesicles fuse Release NT Type 2 taste receptor ```
38
Hearing
Mechanical receptor Based on hair cells bending back and forth Bending because of alternating pressure waves in the air
39
Pitch
Frequency | How many waves per second
40
Sounds transduction
1. Sound waves 2. Mechanical vibrations 3. Fluid waves 4. Bends the hair cells (mechanical) 5. Converted to electrical signals
41
Hearing 2
``` Sound waves (pressure) Tympanic membrane vibrates Move the bones of middle ear Push oval window (membrane) Causes waves in the endolymph Organ of Corti Organ of Corti contains hair cells that transform the physical energy of the endolymph waves into electrical energy ```
42
Equilibrium
``` Balance Position of body in space 1. Gravity receptors 2. Proprioceptors 3. Visual ```
43
Vision
1. Focus light 2. Transduce light energy into electrical energy 3. Neural processing Shorter wavelength = more energy Longer wavelength = less energy
44
Focusing
Regulates amount of light that reached photoreceptors Pupils dilate Decrease in aperture size and increase in depth of field Lens is rounded (focus on objects close to you) Ciliary muscles can pull on the lens > flattens (focus on objects farther away)
45
Photo transduction
Retina Photo transducer Synapse with bipolar cells Synapse with ganglion cells Axons of ganglion cells are bundled into optic nerve Fovea > highest concentration of photoreceptors
46
Rods
Most common Monochromatic Very good at low light Visual pigment rhodopsin
47
Cones
Concentrated in fovea High acuity vision Color vision (discriminate different wavelengths, red, blue, green)
48
Photoreceptors
Membrane disks | Folded membrane to increase surface area
49
Transduction mechanism: dark
``` Photoreceptors have an open Na channel Depolarize Induce Ca influx NT release (glutamate) Increase AP ```
50
Transduction mechanism: light
Rhodopsin >opsin (G-protein coupled receptor) >retinal (organic carotenoid)
51
Retina in the dark
``` Cis-bond Tightly binds to opsin Photon strikes the retinal Absorbs energy Changes structure to trans-bond Can't bind to opsin ```
52
Retina in the light
Changes retinal Frees the opsin receptor Opsin binds to the G-protein Activates G-protein
53
Afferent neurons (somatic motor neurons)
Control skeletal muscle
54
Muscle
Collection of muscle fibers (muscle cells) 100's-1000's of fibers Each fiber is controlled independently
55
Myoblast
Myo = muscle Blast = immature Form myocytes
56
Fibers
``` Attach to connective tissue Bundle fibers together Wrap around outer muscle Protect to the bone Increase strain on muscle > increase amount of connective tissue Protection ```
57
Skeletal muscle
Made of many muscle fibers | Wrapped by connective tissue for protection
58
Myofibrils
Bundles of contractile proteins
59
Sarcomere
Functional unit of myofibril
60
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Modified ER Wraps around myofibrils Stores calcium (Calcium is signal for contraction)
61
Transverse tubules
Invaginations of the plasma membrane | Conduct AP along the T-tubule and deliver info decay into the muscle fiber
62
Glycogen granules
Glucose polymer | Energy store for skeletal muscle
63
Contractile proteins
Actin (contraction) Myosin (contraction) Troponin (regulatory)
64
Actin
Forms a polymer (can only pull) (microfilament)
65
Myosin
Motor protein
66
Myosin cycle
1. Myosin is energized - phosphorylated - head is cocked - actin binding site exposed 2. Myosin binds to actin - causes myosin to change shape (rotate) - pulls the actin - de phosphorylates 3. In the new conformation it exposes an ATP binding site on the myosin 4. ATP binds > myosin releases microfilament 5. Activates the myosin ATPase 6. Phosphorylates the myosin light chain > pushes the myosin into the cocked or energized conformation
67
Neublin
Protein responsible for placing the microfilament in these parallel arrangement
68
Dystrophin
Complex of protein Attach to the desmin z-line Span membrane Attaches to connective tissue
69
Force transduction
1. Myosin pulls on the microfilament 2. MF pulls on the z-line 3. Z-line pulls on the dystrophin 4. Dystrophin pulls on connective tissue 5. Connective tissue pulls on bone
70
Muscular dystrophy
Faulty protein in the dystrophin complex Does not attach to connective tissue Contraction tears fibers (chronic inflammation)
71
Contraction
Sarcomere gets smaller
72
Fine/crude control
Fine: 1:1 ratio of neuron to muscle fiber Crude: 1:100 neuron to muscle fiber
73
Regulation of skeletal muscle
1. Somatic motor neuron fires AP 2. Neuro muscular synapse 3. Muscle fiber depolarizers 4. AP will also follow the transverse tubules 5. In the t-tubules are voltage sensors 6. Activated DHP receptor can physically touch or interact with ryanodine receptor on the SR 7. Open ryanodine receptor will permit Ca efflux from the SR > cytoplasm 8. Troponin complex 9. Continue as long as Ca is high
74
Relaxation
Stop firing AP | Ca must be pumped out of the cytoplasm back into the SR
75
Calsequestrin
Ca storage protein Abundant inside SR Increase the amount of Ca that can be stored
76
McArdle's disease
``` Faulty glycogen breakdown Muscle fatigue Stiffness Pain Glycogen storage disease Cannot release glucose Low muscle power ```
77
Rigor Mortis
1. Heart stops - no oxygen delivery - no glucose delivery 2. Cells begin to consume store of ATP 3. Decrease in ATP > decrease in NaK-ATPase 4. DHP receptors respond to the voltage change 5. Muscle myosin with bind to MF (powerstroke) 6. Without ATP > myosin cannot release MF, muscles become stiff
78
Fatigue
Mechanism to prevent rigor
79
Fatigue mechanisms
1. Insufficient oxygen delivery to muscles 2. High rates of ATP consumption 3. High AP frequency in large muscles 4. Decrease in Ca in SR Decrease in Ca release per AP Decrease in relative stimulation Decrease in ATP consumption 5. Central fatigue
80
Slow-twitch oxidative muscle
``` Slow contraction speed Slow myosin ATPase Small diameter of fiber Long duration of contraction Low Ca-ATPase activity Resistant to fatigue Low power Lots of mitochondria Use lots of oxygen Red ```
81
Fast-twitch oxidative muscle
``` Fast contraction speed Fast myosin ATPase Medium diameter of fiber Short duration of contraction High Ca-ATPase activity Reasonably fatigue resistant High power Metabolism can switch depending on depend Red ```
82
Fast-twitch glycolytic
``` Really fast contraction speed Fast myosin ATPase Large diameter of fiber Short duration of contraction High Ca-ATPase activity Fatigue easily Highest power Very few mitochondria glycolytic White (no myoglobin) ```
83
Myosin-ATPase
Myosin cycle how quickly it can move along the MF
84
Ca-ATPase
Rate at when you can decrease Ca and relax (relaxation speed)
85
Myoglobin
Respiratory pigment Higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin Cause oxygen transfer from blood to muscle
86
Large motor units
``` High power Lower fidelity (control) ```
87
Small motor units
``` Lower power Higher fidelity (control) ```
88
Tension
1. Sarcomere length 2. AP frequency 3. Size of motor unit 4. Motor unit recruitment
89
Asynchronus recruitment
Rotate through the motor units 35-40% of fibers responding at the same time Also a protection device to limit muscle damage
90
Renshaw cells
Inhibitory interneurons (spinal cord) Adapt quickly and stay responding Permit higher frequency after initial stimulation Release cells glycine as NT (inhibitory synapse with motor neuron)
91
Strychnine
Blocks glycine receptors Eliminates renshaw cells Muscle spasms
92
Clostridium tetani
``` Produced tetanus toxin Blocks inhibitory interneurons Prevents the release of the NT Muscle spasms Seizures Often fatal ```
93
Muscle tetanus
Sustained contraction
94
Clostridium botulinum
``` Botulinum toxin Typically found in food Prevent Ach release at the neuro-muscular synapse Produce a paralysis Most deadly toxin Botox ```
95
Tetani
Neurotoxin Block release of inhibitory NT Spasms/seizures
96
Botulinum toxin
Prevents release of Ach at neuromuscular junctions | Muscle paralysis
97
Duchenie muscle dystrophy
``` Dystrophin malfunction Results in muscle tears > inflammation Large Ca influx Activates protease Muscle breakdown Death due to failure of respiratory muscles ```
98
Anderson's disease
``` Glycogen storage disease Enzyme amylo transglucosidase (responsible for branching) Forms large crystals Liver damage Fatal ```
99
Endurance training
Increase in lactic acid (decrease in pH) 1. Increase cardiac output 2. Increase vascularization 3. Increase fibers make more mitochondria > increase ATP production
100
Strength training
Increase force required Cause a release of transcription factor Go to nucleus Cause transcription of sarcomere proteins (more actin/myosin) Produce more connective tissue (protection) Increase muscle mass Increase capacity for force
101
Protective reflexes
1. Muscle tensions > protection (Golgi tendon organ) 2. Muscle stretch (muscle spindles) > maintain length 3. Joint capsules (proprioceptors) > joint position
102
Muscle spindles
``` Modified muscle fiber (intrafusal fibers) Intrafusal fibers link to connective tissue Neuro sensor (stretch receptor) ```
103
Stretch
Neuron fired an AP Goes to spinal cord Synapse with the alpha-somatic motor neurons
104
Golgi tendon organ
Mechano sensor (measure pressure) Increase force generated by muscle pull on the tendon with more force Increase AP frequency on sensor Axon goes to the spinal cord Make an inhibitory synapse with alpha-somatic motor neurons
105
Antagonist muscles around a movable joint
Form myotatic units | Stimulation of one will cause a reciprocal inhibition of the other through interneurons
106
Smooth muscle
Not associated with a bone Associated with hollow organs (tubes) Can create peristaltic forces to force movements Can maintain force (does not fatigue) Surrounds blood vessels, GI tract, reproductive tract, urinary tract, bladders, sphincter Control movement through systems
107
Regulation of smooth muscle
1. Autonomic nervous system 2. Paracrine control (changes in the environment) 3. Stretch activation (peristalsis)
108
Smooth muscle continued
``` Actin/myosin No troponin (Still relies on Ca as signal) Less myosin per unit area Lower ATPase activity (cycling rate is low > slow contractions) ```
109
SM fibers
1. Single unit smooth muscle (fibers are electrically coupled to one another, gap junctions) 2. Multi-unit smooth muscle Cells are not electrically coupled Each fiber requires individual stimulation
110
SM contraction
1. Increase in Ca 2. Ca binds to calmodublin (protein) 3. CaM binds and activates the myosin light chain kinase (phosphorylate myosin) 4. Activates myosin
111
SM relaxation
1. Ca-ATPase at PM 2. Na/Ca exchange Decrease Ca CaM releases Ca Stops activation of MLCK Myosin light chain phosphate removes the phosphate from myosin
112
Cardiac muscle
Myogenic (muscle mistakes the AP) (pacemaker) Fibers are small (easy to get fuel and oxygen, does not fatigue, high rate of oxygen consumption) All cardiac myocytes are electrically coupled 1 AP = 1 heart beat
113
Myogenic
``` Specialized cells (sinoatrial node) Cells of SA node have an unstable resting membrane voltage ```
114
If channel (funny channel)
Open Na channel always cause depolarization Reach threshold
115
AP Route (CM)
1. Starts in SA node 2. AP spreads to the atrial myocytes (atrium contracts) 3. From the atrial cells for AP is funneled through the AV node 4. AV node has a very slow conduction velocity (AP is slow, gives time for the atria to contract and relax before stimulation the ventricles 5. AP then passes down the septum following high conduction bundle of his 6. AP spreads through the ventricular myocytes following the Purkinje fibers (high conduction) 7. Ventricle contracts
116
Fibrulation
AP route is too erratic
117
Sympathetic (cardiac muscle)
``` NE Beta 1 adrenergic receptors Increase cAMP Cause a decrease in potassium conductance Depolarize Faster to threshold (more AP/min) Increase HR ```
118
Parasympathetic (cardiac muscle)
Release Ach SA expresses muscorinic cholinergic receptor Activated G-protein > binds to potassium channel Increase potassium conductance Take longer to reach threshold Decrease AP/unit time (decrease HR)
119
AP frequency in cardiac at rest
Athlete: 45 beats/min Elderly: 90 beats/min Max: 200 beats/min
120
Limits of AP frequency in cardiac muscle
If Na channel (slower conductance) Prevent reaching threshold too fast Also refractory period at the end
121
Unique feature of cardiac AP
1. Myogenic 2. Electrically coupled through gap junctions 3. Coordinated transfer of the AP through the heart 4. Depolarization phase is both v-gated Na channel and v-gated Ca channel 5. Long depolarization phase (time for significant Ca influx) 6. Myocytes are small (efficient, do not fatigue, high rates of O2 delivery) 7. Low AP freq. (cannot induce tetanus)
122
EKG waves
``` P wave: atrial depolarization PQ interval: time to pass through the AV node Q: AP traveling down bundle of His R: Purkinje fibers S: radiating to myocytes T wave: ventricular repolarization ```
123
What you can see from an EKG
HR Rhythm Conduction velocity Size (mass) position
124
Third degree heart blocks
Ventricular depolarization does not follow every atrial depolarization Start contracting independently of one another Tissue damage Enlargement of heart
125
Regulation in the force of cardiac muscle contraction
Do not sum cardiac fibers Force of contraction is proportional to the amount of Ca Increase Ca influx > increase force of contraction
126
Regulation of Ca
1. Catecholamines (NE, epi) | 2. Mechano sensors (stretch activation)
127
Catecholamines (sympathetic stimulation)
NE can be released from sympathetic post-ganglionic varicosities onto ventricles Epi can be released into blood steam by adrenal medulla Both NE and epi bind to beta 1 adrenergic receptors
128
Targets for PKA in cardiac tissue
1. PKA phosphorylate L-type Ca channels (increase conductance and open probability) 2. PKA phosphorylates phospholambam (binds and increases the activity of the Ca-ATPase) 3. PKA phosphorylates Troponin C (decrease Ca affinity, starts relaxation phase faster)
129
Physical or stretch activation to increase force of contraction
1. Length-tension curve (overlap between MF and myosin) 2. Mechanosensative sensors Increase stretch Activate sensors Increase Ca influx = greater force
130
Stroke volume
Volume of blood pumped per beat (SV = EDV - ESV)
131
End diastolic volume (EDV)
Volume of blood in ventricle at the end of relaxation | Blood return rate
132
End systolic volume (ESV)
Volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of contraction
133
Cardiac output
Volume of blood pumped per minute | SV x HR
134
Atherosclerosis
Decrease in stroke volume | In order to maintain C.O. HR must increase
135
Heart attack
Cardiac proteins (Troponin isoform) in blood = damaged cells in heart = Heart attack
136
Receptive field
The region within which a sensory neuron can sense a stimulus
137
Primary sensory neuron
The sensory neuron that takes information from the sensory receptor into the spinal cord
138
Inflammatory pain
Increases sensitivity to pain at sites of tissue damage
139
Referred pain
Pain that is felt in a location away from the actual site of stimulus
140
Gate control theory
AB fibers carry sensory information about mechanical stimuli to help block pain transmission Ex: running a bumped elbow or skin lessens your pain
141
Bipolar neuron
Neuron with a single axon and single dendrite
142
Ganglion cells
Neurons of the eye whose axons form the optic nerve | Lie on surface of retina
143
Optic nerve
Cranial nerve 2 | Transmits impulses to the brain from the retina
144
Visual fields (receptive fields) of ganglion cells
Each ganglion cell receives info from a particular area of the retina
145
Z disks M disks Titin
Attachment site for thin filaments Attachment site for thick filaments Stabilizes the position of the contractile filament and its elasticity returns stretched muscles to their resting length
146
Isotonic contraction
Contraction that creates force and movement
147
Isometric contraction
Contractions that create force without movement
148
Alpha motor neurons
Neurons that innervate extrafusual fibers and cause contraction
149
Gamma motor neurons
Small neurons that innervate intrafusal fibers within muscle spindles
150
Myotatic unit
Collection of pathways controlling a single joint

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