Birth And Physical Development Flashcards
(34 cards)
When does prenatal development begin
What is prenatal development
This development takes an average of how many weeks and these weeks consists of which stages
Which period does organogenesis occur ?
When does the second period start and when does it last?
At which period do most women realize they’re pregnant ?
Which period is the longest and when does it begin and end?
When do the body systems begin to work
During prenatal development what can influence genes to stop working or make them weaker
It begins When a sperm successfully fertilizes an egg,the many changes that transform the fertilized egg into a newborn human is prenatal development
Average is 38 weeks but it’s from 37-42 weeks
The weeks consists of the period of the zygote,period of the embryo and period of the foetus
Period of the embryo (that’s why women at this stage should take folic acid for organ development especially for the spine development to prevent spina bifida and other congenital abnormalities)
Starts 3rd week after conception and lasts until the end of the 8th week .
Period of the embryo
Period of the foetus
It’s the final and longest phase . Begins at the ninth week (when cartilage begins to turn to bone) and ends at births
Period of the foetus
Toxins,nutrition,stress
What observations are Made during prenatal development
What things influence prenatal development
Copulation Fertilization Implantation Organogenesis Multiple pregnancies Infertility
Nutrition-proteins vitamins minerals example folic acid and iron
Stress-leads to
Low birth weight in women w anxieties
Age of pregnant woman(extremes of age such as too old or too young can cause them to have problems ,congenital abnormalities can occur in older women who get pregnant)
Lifestyle factors:smoking (due to effect of nicotine leading to increased risk of abortion , baby may be small for the gestational age(SGA)
Alcohol intake can cause fetal alcohol syndrome
STIs
Teratogens example thalidomide ,chemotherapy drugs cause malformations and may lead to miscarriage ,antiepileptic drugs (phenytoin) increase the incidence of cleft lip and palate ,restricted growth,aspirin(deficits in intelligence),caffeine(low birth weight),nicotine(retarded growth)
Environmental hazards (nuclear bombs,chemical wastes,radiation,pollution)
Diseases both inherited and non inherited
Example: HIV/AIDS,rubella,cytomegalovirus,syphilis,diabetes)
What is the upper portion of the vagina called?
What is the part of the Fallopian tube that inserts into the womb
What are fimbrae
What are the parts of the Fallopian tube from the part that takes the egg to the part that connects to the womb
Ectopic pregnancy can be confused with what on scan?
Vault
intramural, or uterine
Fimbrae are hairlike structures that pick the egg
Fimbrae-infundibulum-ampulla-isthmus-intramural
Hemorrhagic cyst.
Pregnancy can be there with the hemorrhagic cyst instead of the ectopic and the bleeding may be due to the cyst and not the ectopic
So be very careful when diagnosing ectopic
What are the conceptions of age?
Define them
What are the stages of physical growth and give the ages)
Which physical stage is more rapid
Chronological age- number of years that have gone by since birth
Social age: social roles and expectations related to a persons age
Biological age:deterioration of organisms that leads inevitably to their death
Psychological age: it’s subjective. It’s the individuals adaptive capacities compared w those of other individuals of the same chronological age
Infancy- growth is more rapid
-growth required high mount of energy
(First 2 years of life (the first month is the neonatal or newborn period))
Early childhood(2 to 5 or 6 years (some prefer to describe as toddlers children who have begun to walk and are age 1 to 3))
Middle (
6 to about 12 (or until the onset of puberty) )and late childhood
Adolescence (Approximately 12 to 20 )
Early adulthood-20 to 40 years
Middle adulthood-40 to 65 years
Late adulthood-
65 years and older
What’s the composition of breast milk
What are the benefits of breast milk
It’s rich in protein, sugar, vitamins and minerals, plus numerous bioactive components – such as hormones, growth factors, enzymes and live cells – to support your baby’s healthy growth and development.
Advantages:
It boosts baby’s immune system.
It balances baby’s belly.
Breastmilk plants good bacteria into the digestive system to build a strong, healthy baby
Breastmilk is easily digestible.
Mother’s milk is perfect for baby’s developing digestive tract.
Name one domain of development and explain
Cognitive development focuses on a child’s development in terms of what things?
What theory is associated w cognitive development?
Cognitive development
Refers to how a person perceives ,thinks,and gains understanding of his or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors
Information processing Conceptual resources Perceptual skill Language learning Other aspects of the developed adult brain
Jean Piaget’s theory
What are the theories of cognitive and psychoanalytic development
Piaget’s theory also called theory of constructivism
Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytic theory
What does Piaget’s theory say?
Children actively construct new understandings of the world based on their own experiences
Humans do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission,rather they contstruct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse integrating new information with what they already know
Example: it is common for pre school kids to invent their own ideas by saying the sun is alive because it moves in the sky
How do kids construct accurate understandings of the world?
According to Piaget,kids understand the world with schemes. What are schemes?
By being: Curious Active explorers Watching what is going on around them Seeing what happens when they experiment on objects they encounter
Psychological structures that organize experience. They are mental categories of related events,objects and knowledge
What are the four major periods of cognitive development
These stages form what Piaget called?
Sensorimotor stage(birth to age 2)
Preoperational stage (2-7 years)
Concrete operations stage(ages 7-11)
Formal operations stage(11-12 or older)
An invariant sequence ;all children progress through the stages in the order they are listed without skipping stages or regressing to earlier stages
The ages are only guidelines cuz different kids progress at different rates
What is the sensorimotor stage?
What is object permanence?
How is object permanence seen?
What their senses tell them is what their motor does
Infants in this stage deal with the world directly through their (perceptions) and actions(motor skills)
They construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical,motor actions
Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can’t be seen,heard or touched
By watching an infants reaction when an interesting object disappears. If the infant searches for the object,it’s assumed the infant believes it’s still there or it continues it exist
What is the preoperational stage
Child has now developed the capacity for symbolic thought but isn’t yet capable of logical problem solving
According to Piaget,pre school children are egocentric thinkers who have difficulty adopting perspectives other than their own and they may cling to incorrect ideas simply because they want them to be true
The 4- or 5-year-old can use words as symbols to talk about a problem and can mentally imagine doing something before actually doing it.
Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. But their thinking is not yet logical; they are egocentric (unable to take others’ perspectives) and are easily fooled by perceptions, failing conservation problems because they cannot rely on logical operations.
What are concrete operations
School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems.
They are more logical at this stage
They do well on problems that allow them to think about concrete objects
They can perform many logical actions in their head on concrete objects
For example they can mentally categorize or add or subtract objects
What are the characteristics of the preoperational stage
Egocentrism: Arises from egocentrism. Thinks that nothing changes. Thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred
Symbolic representation
Which characteristic of preoperational thought involves a child assuming that the world is unchanging, so always remains just the way it is currently? A young child’s belief that natural objects are alive and animals have human characteristics is: static reasoning or conservation (Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.)
Centration and conservation: Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at one time. while ignoring all other properties or characteristics
Actually it’s:
Egocentrism-child believes everyone sees the world as he or she does
Example:
A child gestures during a telephone conversation not realizing that the listener can’t see the gestures
Centration:child focuses on one aspect of a problem or a situation but ignored other relevant aspects
Example:In conservation of liquid quantity the child pays attention to the height of the liquid in the beaker but ignores the diameter of the beaker
Appearance as reality: Child assumes that an object really is what it appears to be
Example: child believes that a person smiling at another person is really happy even though the other person is being mean
What is the formal operations stage
Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace
the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method.
Adolescents who reach the formal operations stage are able to think more abstractly and hypothetically than school-age chil- dren. They can define justice abstractly, in terms of fairness, rather than concretely, in terms of the cop on the corner or the judge in the courtroom. They can formulate hypotheses or pre- dictions in their heads, plan how to systematically test their ideas experimentally, and imagine the consequences of their tests. It often takes some years before adolescents can adopt a thoroughly systematic and scientific method of solving problems and can think logically about the implications of purely hypothetical ideas.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Piaget’s theory and explain them
Merits:
Piaget’s ideas have influenced education and child rearing by encouraging teachers and parents to pitch their educational programs to children’s levels of understanding and to stimulate children to discover new concepts through their own direct grappling with problems.
Piaget changed how people saw a child’s world and their technique of studying children. Many who took up his ideas were inspired by him.
Piaget’s ideas were of efficient use in comprehending and corresponding with children, mainly in the educational field.
Piaget’s theory also helped change the way that researchers thought about children. Rather than simply viewing them as smaller versions of adults, experts began to recognize that the way children think is fundamentally different from the way that adults think.2
Demerits: example, critics fault him for saying too little about the influences of motivation and emotion on thought processes.
They also question whether Piaget’s stages really hang together as coherent and general modes of thinking that can be applied to a variety of types of problems; research suggests that the thinking skills needed to solve different types of problems are acquired at different rates.
Critics also conclude that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of young children; recent studies suggest that children master some Piagetian concepts earlier than Piaget believed they did, although defenders of Piaget would question whether some of the simplified tasks used by later researchers really demon- strate that young children have fully mastered the concepts tested (Desrochers, 2008).
Piaget is also charged with putting too little emphasis on the role of parents and other more knowledge- able people in nurturing cognitive development.
Piaget focused on the universal stages of concentrated on cognitive development and biological process. He did not consider the effect that the social setting and cultures may have on cognitive development.
Piaget’s methods are more biased because he only did observation on his own and not with another researcher to compare and check for correlation.
Piaget‘s test were challenging to comprehend hence the reason why the abilities of children were underrated.
Piaget used small sample size of participant for his studies. He used only children from Switzerland which is where he is from. Therefore this Sample is biased because it cannot be generalized with children from other
Developmental variations exist:
The theory seems to suggest that reaching the formal operational stage is the end goal of development, yet it is not clear if all people actually fully achieve the developmental tasks that are the hallmark of formal operations. Even as adults, people may struggle to think abstractly about situations, falling back on more concrete operational ways of thinking.
The Theory Underestimated Children’s Abilities
Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget suspected. Theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people.
Example: For example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed
Differences between Piaget and Vygotskys sociocultural theory and one similarity
The fundamental difference between Piaget and Vygotsky is that Piaget believed in the constructivist approach of children, or in other words, how the child interacts with the environment, whereas Vygotsky stated that learning is taught through socially and culturally
whereas Piaget tended to see children as independent explorers, Vygotsky saw them as social beings who develop their minds through guided participation in culturally important activities in which parents, teachers, and other knowledgeable members of their culture provide “scaffolding” or support that facilitates learning.
By calling attention to guided participation processes, in the zone of proximal develop- ment, Vygotsky was rejecting Piaget’s view of children as inde- pendent explorers in favor of the view that they learn more so- phisticated cognitive strategies through their interactions with more mature thinkers. To Piaget, the child’s level of cognitive development determines what he can learn; to Vygotsky, learn- ing in collaboration with more knowledgeable companions drives cognitive development
Intellectually capable children rely more heavily on private speech in the preschool years and make the transition to inner speech earlier in the elementary school years than their less aca- demically capable peers do (Berk & Landau, 1993). This sug-
gests that the preschool child’s self-talk is indeed a sign of cogni- tive maturity, as Vygotsky claimed, rather than a sign of immature egocentrism, as Piaget claimed.
Similarity:
similarity between Piaget and Vygotsky is that they both believed that the boundaries of cognitive growth were instituted by societal influences.
What is the main theme of Vygotsky’s theory (this is another perspective on cognitive development as well as the information processing approach)
Cognitive growth occurs in socio-cultural context and evolves out of the child’s social interactions
Like Piaget,Vygotsky’s emphasized that children actively construct their knowledge and understanding and are more often described as social creatures
They develop their ways of thinking and understanding through social interactions
Their cognitive development depends on the tools provided by society and their minds are shaped by the cultural context in which they live
What are the three components of Vygotsky’s theory and explain ZPD
Zone of proximal development (ZPD):range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but that can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children. The zone is the area between the level of performance a child can achieve when working independently and a higher level of performance that is possible when working under the guidance or direction of more skilled adults or peers
Therefore the lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently and the upper limit of ZPD is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept w the assistance of an able instructor
Scaffolding
Language and thought
What is scaffolding
What is an important tool of scaffolding in the zone of proximal development
A style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learners needs
Early in learning a new task,children know little so teachers give much direct instruction about how to do the different elements of a task.
As the kids catch on ,the teachers need to provide less direct instruction
They are more likely to be giving reminders
the more skilled person gives structured help to a less skilled learner but gradually reduces the help as the less skilled learner becomes more competent.
Dialogue
What is the difference between preoperational and concrete thinkers
Preoperational Thinkers
Fail conservation tasks because they have:
Irreversible thought—Cannot mentally undo an action.
Centration—Center on a single aspect of a problem rather than two or more dimensions at once.
Static thought—Fail to understand transformations or processes of change from one state to another.
Perceptual salience. Understanding is driven by how things look rather than derived from logical reasoning.
Transductive reasoning. Children combine unrelated facts, often leading them to draw faulty cause–effect conclusions simply because two events occur close together in time or space
. Egocentrism. Children have difficulty seeing things from other perspectives and assume that what is in their mind is also what others are thinking.
Single classification. Children classify objects by a single dimension at one time.
Concrete-Operational Thinkers
Solve conservation tasks because they have:
• Reversibility of thought—Can mentally reverse or undo an action.
• Decentration—Can focus on two or more dimensions of a problem at once.
• Transformational thought—Can understand the process of change from one state to another.
Logical reasoning. Children acquire a set of internal operations that can be applied to a variety of problems.
Inductive reasoning. Children draw cause–effect conclusions logically, based on factual information presented to them.
Less egocentrism. Children understand that other people may have thoughts different from their own.
Multiple classification. Children can classify objects by multiple dimensions and can grasp class inclusion.
Explain the five common criticisms of Piaget’s theory
- Underestimating young minds. Piaget seems to have under- estimated the cognitive abilities of infants and young chil- dren, although he emphasized that he was more interested in understanding the sequences of changes than the specific ages at which they occur (Lourenco & Machado, 1996). When researchers use more familiar problems than Piaget’s and reduce tasks to their essentials, hidden competencies of young children—and of adolescents and adults—are some- times revealed.
- Failing to distinguish between competence and performance. Piaget sought to identify underlying cognitive competencies that guide performance on cognitive tasks. But there is an important difference between understanding a concept and passing a test designed to measure it. The age ranges Piaget proposed for some stages may have been off target partly because he tended to ignore the many factors besides com- petence that can influence task performance—everything from the individual’s motivation, verbal abilities, and mem- ory capacity to the nature, complexity, and familiarity of the task used to assess mastery. Piaget may have been too quick to assume that children who failed one of his tests lacked competence; they may only have failed to demonstrate their competence in a particular situation.
Perhaps more importantly, Piaget may have overempha- sized the idea that knowledge is an all-or-nothing concept (Schwitzgebel, 1999). Instead of having or not having a par- ticular competence, children probably gain competence gradually and experience long periods between not under- standing and understanding. Many of the seemingly contra- dictory results of studies using Piagetian tasks can be ac- counted for with this idea of gradual change in understanding. For instance, Piaget argued that infants do not show under- standing of object permanence until 9 months, but other research indicates that at least some understanding of object permanence is present at 4 months (Ruffman et al., 2005). If researchers accept that conceptual change is gradual, then they can stop debating whether competence is present or not present at a particular age. - Wrongly claiming that broad stages of development exist. According to Piaget, each new stage of cognitive development is a coherent mode of thinking applied across a range of prob- lems. Piaget emphasized the consistency of thinking within a
stage and the difference between stages (Meadows, 2006). Yet individuals are often inconsistent in their performance on dif- ferent tasks that presumably measure the abilities defining a given stage. For example, conservation of liquid is acquired earlier than conservation of volume. Researchers increasingly argue that cognitive development is domain specific—that is, it is a matter of building skills in particular content areas—and that growth in one domain may proceed much faster than growth in another (Fischer, Kenny, & Pipp, 1990). In addi- tion, the transitions between stages are not swift and abrupt, as most of Piaget’s writings suggest, but are often lengthy (over several years) and subtle (see Meadows, 2006). It is not always clear when a child has made the shift from one set of struc- tures to a more advanced set of structures, particularly when we consider the two stages based on logical structures— concrete and formal operations. - Failing to adequately explain development. Several critics suggest that Piaget did a better job of describing develop- ment than of explaining how it comes about (Bruner, 1997; Meadows, 2006). To be sure, Piaget wrote extensively about his interactionist position on the nature–nurture issue and did as much as any developmental theorist to tackle the question of how development comes about. Presumably, humans are always assimilating new experiences in ways that their level of maturation allows, accommodating their think- ing to those experiences, and reorganizing their cognitive structures into increasingly complex modes of thought. Yet this explanation is vague. Researchers need to know far more about how specific maturational changes in the brain and specific kinds of experiences contribute to important cogni- tive advances.
- Giving limited attention to social influences on cognitive devel- opment. Some critics say Piaget paid too little attention to how children’s minds develop through their social interactions with more competent individuals and how they develop differ- ently in different cultures (Karpov, 2005). Piaget’s child often resembles an isolated scientist exploring the world alone, but children develop their minds through interactions with par- ents, teachers, peers, and siblings. True, Piaget had interesting ideas about the role of peers in helping children adopt other perspectives and reach new conclusions (see Chapter 13 on moral development). But he did not believe that children learned much from their interactions with adults. This may seem counterintuitive, but Piaget believed that children see other children, but not adults, as “like themselves.” Hearing a different perspective from someone like oneself can trigger internal conflict, but hearing a perspective from someone dif- ferent from oneself may not be viewed as a challenge to one’s current way of thinking because the person—and their views—are simply too different. Thus, in Piaget’s model, no notable cognitive conflict, and therefore little cognitive growth, occurs from children interacting with adults. As you will see shortly, the significance of social interaction and cul- ture for cognitive development is the basis of the perspective on cognitive development offered by one of Piaget’s early crit- ics, Lev Vygotsky.
Explain three of Piaget’s contributions
Piaget is a giant in the field of human development. As one scholar quoted by Harry Beilin (1992) put it, “assessing the im- pact of Piaget on developmental psychology is like assessing the impact of Shakespeare on English literature or Aristotle on philosophy—impossible” (p. 191). It is hard to imagine that re- searchers would know even a fraction of what they know about intellectual development without Piaget’s groundbreaking work.
One sign of a good theory is that it stimulates research. Piaget asked fundamentally important questions about how hu- mans come to know the world and showed that we can answer them “by paying attention to the small details of the daily lives of our children” (Gopnik, 1996, p. 225). His cognitive developmen- tal perspective has been applied to almost every aspect of human development, and the important questions he raised continue to guide the study of cognitive development. Thus, his theory has undoubtedly stimulated much research in the decades following its creation.
We can credit Piaget with some lasting insights (Flavell, 1996). He showed us that infants are active in their own development—that from the start they seek to master problems and to understand the incomprehensible by using the processes of assimilation and accommodation to resolve their cognitive disequilibrium. He taught us that young people think differently than older people do—and often in ways we never would have suspected. The reasoning of preschoolers, for example, often de- fies adult logic, but it makes sense in light of Piaget’s insights about their egocentrism and reliance on the perceptual salience of certain aspects of a situation. School-age children have the logical thought processes that allow them to excel at many tasks, but they draw a blank when presented with hypothetical or ab- stract problems. And adolescents are impressive with their scien- tific reasoning skills and their ability to wrestle with abstract problems, but they may think so much about events that they get tangled with new forms of egocentrism.
Finally, Piaget was largely right in his basic description of cognitive development. The sequence he proposed—sensorimotor to preoperational to concrete operations to formal operations— seems to describe the course and content of intellectual develop- ment for children and adolescents from the hundreds of cultures and subcultures that have been studied (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 1993). Although cultural factors influence the rate of cognitive growth, the direction of development is always from sensorimotor thinking to preoperational thinking to concrete operations to, for many, formal operations (or even postformal operations). Piaget’s account of development remains relevant to our understanding of current issues in the field of cognition (Kuhn, 2008).
What is language and thought
challeng- ing problems but also allows them to incorporate into their own thinking the problem-solving strategies they learned during their collaborations with adults. Notice that, as in guided participa- tion, what is at first a social process becomes an individual psy- chological process.
True or false
According to Vygotsky’s theory,children use their speech not only to communicate,but to help them solve tasks
He concluded that young children use language to guide and monitor their behavior
This use of language for self regulation is called private speech(—speech to oneself that guides one’s thought and behavior.)
