BIS 2A Flashcards
(267 cards)
1
Q
CH3
A
Methyl, nonpolar
2
Q
OH
A
Hydroxyl, polar
3
Q
COOH
A
Carboxylic group, polar
4
Q
NH3
A
Amino group, polar
5
Q
PO4-
A
Phosphate group, polar
6
Q
Phosphorylation
A
Adding of phosphate groups, endergonic
7
Q
Dephosphorylation
A
Splitting phosphate groups, exergonic
8
Q
Phosphoanhydride bond
A
Bond between the two phosphate groups
9
Q
Anaerobic
A
Does not require oxygen
10
Q
Aerobic
A
Requires oxygen
11
Q
Where does glycolysis occur?
A
Cytoplasm
12
Q
Is glycolysis aerobic or anaerobic?
A
Anaerobic
13
Q
What happens in a coupled reaction?
A
The enzyme allows a favorable reaction to occur, but an unfavorable reaction occurs simultaneously, because the activation energy was too high
14
Q
Substrate level phosphorylation
A
Phosphate is donated by a high energy carbon compound
15
Q
Main purpose of fermentation…
A
Replenish NAD+ levels
16
Q
Two different types of fermentation:
A
Lactic acid and ethanol
17
Q
What is pyruvate and what is it used for in fermentation?
A
Pyruvate is an electron acceptor used in fermentation to generate lactate and oxidize NADH to NAD+
18
Q
What happens to lactate in fermentation?
A
Secreted from cell as waste
19
Q
Is fermentation anaerobic or aerobic?
A
Anaerobic
20
Q
What process is pyruvate oxidized?
A
TCA Cycle
21
Q
Besides fermentation, where else can we recycle NADH back to NAD+?
A
Electron Transport Chain
22
Q
At the end of glycolysis, where are the pyruvate molecules transported to?
A
Mitochondria
23
Q
Where does respiration and electron transport chain occur in eukaryotes
A
Mitochondria
24
Q
What is the terminal electron acceptor for humans?
A
O2
25
In glycolysis, for every molecule that is metabolized, ___ molecules of pyruvate are produced
2
26
Where does the TCA Cycle occur?
Matrix of mitochondria
27
In the TCA cycle, one acetyl CoA will yield...
One ATP/GTP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
28
What happens to CO2 in the TCA Cycle?
It is released as gas from breathing
29
What is a Metabolic Intermediate
Compound that is produced by a reaction which then acts as a substrate for the next reaction
30
What is the reductive TCA Cycle used for?
Construct glucose and other carbon containing molecules for CO2. ATP and NADH will be inputs since it is in reverse
31
What does the ETC produce?
Proton gradient
32
What is the proton gradient used for?
Running ATP synthase
33
A more negative reduction potential means...
The less likely the compound will accept electrons. Stronger electron donor
34
Oxidized compounds will have a higher...
Reduction potential
35
O2 is a very strong...
Oxidizing agent (Will become reduced)
36
+ delta G knot prime means what for delta E knot prime
It will be negative and vice versa
37
The oxidant is...
the compound getting electrons
38
The reductant is...
the compound losing electrons
39
What are the two major recycable energy carriers?
NAD+ and FAD(2+)
40
NAD+ is used as a reactant in ...
While NADH is used as a reactant in...
Glycolysis, TCA Cycle
ETC, Fermentation
41
More CH bonds mean...
More reduced
42
ETC occurs in...
The inner mitochondrial matrix
43
What happens in respiration?
A series of redox reactions that transfer electrons to the terminal electron acceptor
44
The electrons passing through the ETC gradually lose...
Potential energy
45
Generating ATP from ADP is called...
Oxidative phosphorylation (Redox reaction and phosphorylation)
46
What does the ETC begin with?
Donation of electrons from NADH and FADH2
47
What is aerobic respiration?
Process of using oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor in an electron transport chain
48
The endergonic formation of a proton gradient is powered by...
the exergonic redox reactions
49
What is chemiosmosis used for?
Creating 90% of the ATP during aerobic glucose catabolism
50
What are the fates of an excited electron?
1. Go back to ground state (fluoresced)
2. Transferred by resonance
3. Transferred to an electron acceptor (Photochemical reaction)
51
Photophosphorylation
Process of transferring light energy into ATP
52
What is special about green sulfur bacteria
Can perform photosynthesis using low-energy infrared photons becaause they live in the absence of light
53
In green sulfur bacteria photosynthesis, the electrons are cyclic/non-cyclic
Cyclic
54
In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons end up onto...
NADPH after moving through ETC
55
NADPH in non-cyclic photophosphorylation will be used for...
Carbon fixation
56
Green sulfur bacteria evolved to utilize ___ as an electron donor, while green plants cannot
H2S
57
What is the overall function of light dependent reactions of oxygenic photophosphorylation?
Transform solar energy into chemical compounds in the form of NADPH and ATP
58
The energy from light dependent reactions is used for
reactants for the light independent reactions
59
Photosystem I and II are found in...
the thylakoid membrane
60
What happens in the Calvin Cycle?
The ATP will be input and the electron is deposited onto CO2 for long-term storage in the form of a carbohydrate
61
Calvin Cycle takes place in the...
Stroma
62
What is special about the reaction center?
Close to an oxidizing agent to undergo oxidation where the light energy is transformed to stable state
63
Z Scheme
PSII (P680) --> ETC --> P700ox --> ETC --> donated to NADP+
Along the way, proton gradient formed
64
P680ox replaces its electron by...
Taking an electron from water
65
What happens to water molecules in PSII?
Split to create O2. O2 is then released into the atmosphere
66
In photosynthesis, the plant cells use the ATP and NADPH formed during photophosphorylation to...
Reduce CO2 to sugar
67
What are autotrophs
Organisms that can obtained their carbon from an inorganic source
68
What are heterotrophs
Organisms that requrie organic carbon
69
Calvin Cycle leads to the reduction of
CO2 to G3P
70
What are the three stages of the Calvin Cycle
1. Carbon fixation
2. Redcution of 3-PGA
3. Regeneration of RuBP
71
Amino acids are the...
monomers that make up proteins
72
What is the core structure of every amino acid
Alpha carbon bonded to an amino group, caboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and R group
73
What is the backbone of an amino acid
N-C-C
74
N terminus denotes...
The beginning of the molecule and the amino group
75
C terminus denotes...
The end of the molecule and the carboxyl group
76
Where are peptide bonds formed
When two amino acids bond. Covalent bond
77
What kind of reaction occurs when a peptide bond is formed
Condensation/hydrogen synthesis
78
What bonds when a peptide bond is formed
The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the other amino acid
79
What are the most common shapes in the secondary structure
alpha helix and beta sheets
80
Secondary structures are held together by...
hydrogen bonds from the backbone
81
What is the tertiary structure?
3-D structure of polypeptide
82
What creates the tertiary structure?
Interactions among R groups
83
What kind of bonds are found in tertiary structures?
Hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, disulfide bridge (covalent bond)
84
When is a disulfide bridge created?
When two cysteine side chains interact
85
What kind of proteins can refold?
Small proteins
86
Quaternary structure
Weak interactions between multiple tertiary structures to act as one unit
87
When does denaturation occur
A proteins changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals and loses its shape
88
What are enzymes?
Catalysts that are made of proteins often with non-protein cofactors
89
Enzymes have an active site providing a unique chemical environment for...
Substrates
90
How are enzymes regulated
Inhibition and activation
91
Noncompetitive inhibitors are...
allosteric
92
The chemical reactants to which an enzyme binds are the enzyme's...
substrates
93
The substrate binds onto the enzyme's...
Active site
94
What is competitive inhibition?
When an inhibitor similar enough to a substrate binds to the active site to block the substrate from binding
95
What happens in noncompeititve inhibition?
The inhibitor molecule binds to a location that is not the active site. The binding alters the shape of the enzyme so it doesn't bind effectively. Also called allosteric inhibition
96
Competitive inhibitors affect the __ but not the __ where noncompetitive inhibitors affect the ___
Initial rate; maximal rate; maximal rate
97
What are allosteric activators?
Bind to locations away from the active site, inducing a changw to increase chances of substrate binding to active site
98
What do cofactors do?
Bind to molecules to promote optimal function
99
What are prokaryotes?
Single celled organisms that do not have a distinct nucleus with a membrane or other organelles
100
Prokaryotes are composed of two distinct groups of organisms:
Bacteria and archaea
101
Bacteria and archaea are ciritcal for...
recycling nutrients essential for creating new biomolecules and the evolution of new ecosystems
102
What is a stromatolite?
Sedimentary structure formed when minerals precipitate out of water
103
What began the oxygenation of the atmosphere?
Cyanobacteria
104
What is a cell wall?
A protective structure that allows organisms to survive in extreme conditions
105
What are the three common shapes of bacteria and archaea?
Cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirlli (spiral-shaped)
106
Which aqueous compartment does ADP synthase occur?
Stroma
107
The plastid's inner membrane and thylakoid membrane are resistant to...
the diffusion of protons
108
Water splitting occurs in the...
lumen of the thylakoids
109
In water splitting, you are generating
protons and electrons. Contibutes to proton gradient
110
Which side of the mitochondrial membrane would you make water?
On the matrix side
111
Integral proteins are embedded...
across the plane of the membrane
112
Peripheral proteins are attachded...
to the inner or outer surface
113
Oxidation of water by P680 is endergonic/exergonic?
exergonic
114
How are the 3 domains of life related?
A bacterium and an archean became symbionts; some of their descendants later evolved into eukaryotes
115
Which strategy for capturing energy came last?
Aerobic respiration
116
What might provide the energy required to concentrate the sugar lactose within a cell?
The coupled hydrolysis of ATP to ADP + Pi
117
What happens in G1 phase?
Cell growth
118
What happens in S phase?
DNA replication/synthesis, centrosomes replicate
119
What is a centrosome?
Main microtubule organizers. Pull microtubules and create spindles
120
What happens in G2 phase?
Preparing for division of cell by checking DNA, making sure there are enough organelle to move on
121
What is G0 phase?
Inactive
122
What happens in prophase?
Chromosome condensation
Centrosomes move toward poles
123
Part of condensation involves binding proteins called...
cohesions
124
What happens in prometa and metaphase?
Chromosomes captrued by poles
Chromatids line up on metaphase plate
Each sister chromatid is attached to a pole and under tension
125
Dynein is...
Motor protein that moves toward negative pole of microtubules
126
What happens in anaphase?
Cohesions holding chromatids and chromosomes separate
127
What happens in telophase?
Chromosomes decondense
Nuclear envelope begins to reassemble
Microtubules become less dynamic
128
What happens at the same time as telophase?
Cytokinesis
129
Contractile ring is an...
actin/myosin cytoskeletal machine
130
What is the end of goal of mitosis?
Create an identical pair of cells (conservative replication)
131
What is the end goal of meiosis?
Create cells with half genetic content
Genetic variation
Reductive and recombinatorial
132
What kind of cells are used in meiosis?
Somatic cells (non sex cells)
133
End product of meiosis is...
gametes (haploid)
134
An allele is...
a version of a gene
135
What happens in prophase 1 of meiosis?
DNA condenses
Homologus chromosomes begin to associate
136
In late prophase 1 of meiosis, homologus chromosomes begin to align and form...
Chiasmata (cross-over sites)
137
Why is chiasmata important?
Provides genetic variation
Links homologus pair
138
What happens in metaphase 1 of meiosis?
Nuclear envelope dissolves and microtubules hunt and find kinetichores
139
Kinetichores pointing the same way are called...
Syntelic
140
In metaphase 1 of meiosis, kinetichores for sister chromatids attach..
to the same centrosome/pole
141
Kinetichore pointing different ways are called
amphisyntelic
142
Sister chromatids have ... attachment
syntelic
143
homologus pairs have ... attachment
amphisyntelic
144
What happens in anaphase 1 and telophase 1 of meiosis?
Similar to mitosis but
145
What connects to the centromeres?
Spindle, kinetichores, and hold the sister chromatids together
146
Microtubules grow from...
centrosomes placed at opposite poles of the cell
147
Microtubules attach at...
each chromosomes kinetichores
148
Where does photosynthesis occur in green plants?
chloroplast
149
The jelly-like structure in chloroplast is called...
stroma
150
inside the stroma, there are...
grana
151
one part of the grana is called...
thylakoid
152
the thylakoid is made of...
thyloakoid membrane and lumen(innermost)
153
What is the chlorophyll found in PS II of green plants?
P680
154
What proteins are found in the thylakoid membrane?
PSII, Cytochrome B6F, PSI, ATP synthase
155
What is the pigment in PSI?
P700
156
What is the Z scheme?
Combination of the cyclic and non cyclic processes that plants do
157
How do green plants put an electron back onto P680?
Oxidize water
158
What are the products of non cyclic green plant photosynthesis?
NADPH and O2 (Byproduct)
159
Which photosystem is used in cyclic green plant photosynthesis?
PSI
160
What is the point of cyclic photosynthesis?
Generate a proton gradient to make ATP
161
What is special about cyctochrome B6F
It can pump protons
162
What do we call the motion of protons across ATP synthase
Chemiosmosis
163
Cytochrome B6F pumps protons from the ... to the ...
stroma; lumen
164
What are the products of green plant cyclic photosynthesis?
ATP
165
What is the most abundant enzyme on Earth?
Rubisco
166
What enzyme catalyzes the first step of the Calvin Cycle?
Rubisco
167
Photosystems are made of...
pigments
168
Early Earth was very high in ___ and ___ levels
H2; CO2
169
What part of amino acids define tertiary structure?
R groups and primary structure
170
What determines how proteins fold?
Primary structure
171
Allosteric sites can...
Activate or deactivate enzymes
172
Active sites can...
Bind substrates
Adjust substrates
Decrease transition energy level
173
What are cofactors/coenzymes?
Attached to enzyme and required for its activity
Not used in reaction
174
What are the products of the TCA cycle?
NADH, FADH2
175
NADH and FADH2 from TCA cycle go to...
ETC
176
What does the ETC make?
Proton gradient
177
What is feedback inhibition?
When there is an excess product, so the product binds to the enzyme to inhibit it
178
What does an allosteric activator do?
Binds to the enzyme to change its shape so that the substrate can bind to the enzyme
179
What does an allosteric inhibitor do?
Binds to enzyme to change its shape so the substrate cannot bind to the enzyme
180
Where does glycolysis, fermentation, TCA cycle, ETC, and pyruvate oxidation occur in prokaryotes?
Cytoplasm, Cytoplasm, Cytoplasm, Inner plasma membrane, Cytoplasm
181
Where does glycolysis, fermentation, TCA cycle, ETC, and pyruvate oxidation occur in eukaryotes?
Cytoplasm, Cytoplasm, mitochondrial matrix, inner mitochondrial membrane, Mitochondrial matrix
182
How did mitochondria arise?
Archaean engulfed bacterium. Kept it alive instead of digesting and the two formed a symbiotic relationship
183
How did chloroplast arise?
Eukaryotic cell engulfed a cyanobacteria
184
What kind of cells have mitochondria?
Animal cells, plant cells, protists, fungi
185
What kind of cells have chloroplast?
Plant cells
186
Where are integral membrane proteins located?
Along the lipid bilayer
187
Where are the peripheral membrane proteins located?
On the inside or outside part of the membrane
188
How are transport proteins similar to enzymes?
Can be under allosteric control
Can recognize specific substrates
Can couple unfavorable reactions with favorable ones
189
What are the two kinds of transport?
Active and Passive
190
What are the two kinds of passive transport?
Simple diffusion, and facilitated diffusion
191
How is simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion different?
Simple diffusion uses no protein and is not regulated. Facilitated diffusion uses a transmembrane protein and is regulated
192
What pass through transmembrane proteins?
Polar molecules and ions
193
What is the difference between passive and active transport?
Passive goes with the concentration gradient (high to low) and active goes against it (low to high)
194
What are the three proteins found in membrane transport?
Uniport, simport, antiport
195
What does a uniport do?
Transport one thing in one direction
196
What does a simport do?
Transport two things in one direction
197
What does a antiport do?
Transports two things in two directions
198
What are the two main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Eukaryotic cells are large and have membrane bound organelles
199
What is the zip code, road, and vehicle for intracellular transport?
Signal sequences, cytoskeleton, and motor proteins
200
What are the two types of cytoskeleton for intracellular transport?
Microtubules and actin
201
What motor proteins use microtubules?
dynein and kinesin
202
What motor proteins use actin?
myosin
203
What are the 4 main functions of the cytoskeleton?
Road for motor proteins
Maintain cell shape
Cellular motion
Providing mechanical strength
204
Cytoskeleton is constantly being...
Formed and deformed
205
What are intermediate filaments used for?
Mechanical strength, stress resistance, organelle anchoring
206
What are microtubules used for?
Intracellular transport and cell division
207
What is actin used for?
Intracellular transport, cellular motion, and maintaining cell shape
208
What are the three filaments?
Intermediate filaments, microtubules, and actin
209
What are microtubules made of?
alpha-beta-tubulin dimers
210
What do the + end and - end of microtubules refer to?
Asymmetry
211
What can alpha tubulin do?
Bind to GTP
212
What can beta tubulin do?
Bind to GDP and GTP and hydrolyze GTP
213
Which end does kinesin and dynein walk towards?
Kinesin: + end
Dynein: - end
214
What does actin bind to?
ATP
215
What are the phases of the cell cycle? (Broad)
Grow phase, DNA replication, DNA segregation, cell division
216
What are the two broad phases a cell spends in?
M phase and interphase
217
What are centrosomes made of?
Microtubules
218
What holds sister chromatids together?
Cohesin proteins
219
What is different about metaphase I?
The centrosomes attach to both sister chromatids to ensure they are separating the homologous chromosomes and not the sister chromatids
220
What are the four different things about meiosis I?
Recombination by crossing over
Synaptonemal complex
Kinetochore fusion
Centromere cohesin
221
What are homologous chromosomes held together by?
Synaptonemal complex
222
bivalent permits...
| in chromosomes
recombination
223
What is the place where homologous chromosomes interact with one another called?
chiasma
224
If maternal and paternal have same alleles, it is...
homozygous
225
Dominant:
One copy of allele is needed to obtain trait
226
Recessive
Two copies of allele is needed to obtain trait
227
Phenotype
Observable characteristics
228
What did Mendel do
Observed pea plants
229
Homologues are independently...
assorted
230
Chromosomes are made of...
DNA and protein(histones)
231
Heritable change in a living organism using material extracted from a dead one is called...
transformation
Ex: Making nonvirulent bacteria virulent
232
What is Mendel's 1st law of inheritance?
Segregation: Genes are transferred as separate and distinct units from one generation to the next
233
Answer: dies or lives
Mouse injected with virulent S bacteria
Mouse injected with nonvirulent R bacteria
Mouse injected with virulent S bacteria that was heat treated
Mouse injected with virulent S bacteria that was heat treated and nonvirulent R bacteria
dies
lives
lives
dies
234
What is Mendel's 2nd law of inheritance?
Independent assortment: Alleles of a gene in 1 chromosome pair are inherited independently of alleles of a gene on another pair; gametes fuse at random
235
What is Mendel's 3rd law of inheritance?
Dominance: One allele possesses a greater influence over the other
236
What do viruses consist of?
Protein and nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
237
Where are viruses injected into?
Injected into the cytoplasm of cells. Substance of virus can be determined based on radioactive material present, particularly, Phosphorus (DNA) and Sulfur (Proteins)
238
P680 can (reduce/oxidize) ...?
Oxidize water
239
P700 can (reduce/oxidize) ...?
Reduce NADP
240
Lysozyme...
Breaks down cell walls
241
What factors contribute to denaturing proteins?
Heat, salt, pH
242
Model for structure of DNA gave an explanation for...
Sequence and code
Replication
Repair
Recombination
243
DNA strands are (parallel/antiparallel)
Antiparallel
244
DNA strands have polarity of...
(5', 3')
245
Polymer of DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
246
Monomer of DNA
Deoxy-ribose nucleotides (A,C,T,G)
247
Within strands nucleotides are linked by...
Between strands the bonds are...
Phospho-diester bonds
Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases
248
The 5' sugar is linked to...
Phosphate group
249
Incoming nucleotides are added to the ...
3' end
250
DNA sequences are always written as ...
5' to 3'
251
Nucleoside consists of:
Base + sugar (adenosine, guanine, thymine, cytidine)
252
Nucleotide consists of:
Base + sugar + phosphate
253
What are the nitrogenous bases
adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine
254
DNA backbone is:
sugar - Phosphate - sugar
255
What are the deoxy-ribose carbons 1',3',5' linked to, respectively?
Base, OH, phosphate
256
A always bonds with... (__ H bonds)
T (2 bonds)
257
G always bonds with ... (___ H bonds)
C (3 bonds)
258
Complementarity makes strands...
redundant
259
DNA replication requires a lot of...
enzymes and factors
260
In DNA replication, enzymes come together in...
a replication fork that moves in one direction
261
DNA primase:
Adds RNA primers without initial 3' OH
262
What are the three membrane functions mediated by proteins?
Platform for biological reactions
Sensing
Cell recognition
263
Net direction of a reaction depends on...
Relative potential energies of reactants and products
264
Potential energies of molecules are determined by...
Structure and concentration
265
Hydrolysis of ATP could drive...
Formation of concentration gradient
Endergonic reactions
Cytoskeletal reorganization
Intrcellular transport
Muscle contraction
266
When a photon interacts with a molecule, it can be...
1. Scattered - Photon changes direction but no wavelength
2. Transmitted - Photon keepd going
3. Absorbed - Molecule acquires energy of photon and goes to excited state
267
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon, the enrgy can be...
Released as a lower energy photon (fluorescence)
Transferred directly to another nearby pigment (resonance)
Used for a chemical reaction (redox)
