BIS2B Lectures/Discussions Flashcards
(140 cards)
1
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Ecology
A
scientific study a b/n organisms within themselves + their envnmnt.
2
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Abiotic
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non-living factors affecting environment
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Biotic
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living factors that affect environmental factors
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Individual
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individual traits determine response to environmental factors
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Population
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interacting group of cospecific individuals
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Species
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group of organisms w same type, common ancestor, defined by ability of grp. members to interbreed w only one another
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Community
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set of co-occuring, interacting species
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Ecosystem
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interacting systems of species and their abiotic environment
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Evolution
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change in a genetic composition of a population over time
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Natural selection
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diff. survival and/or reproduction of individuals w/ diff. trait values within pop.
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Adaptive evolution
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process of evolution through natural selection
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Adaptive trait
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trait that has evolved to enhance organism’s survival/reproduction in its environment
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Rapid evolution
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evolutionary and ecological processes may occur on similar time scales leading to feedbacks that can be observed directly
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Habitat/Ecosystem
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grouping of organisms and their physical environment
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Higher taxa
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grouping of species based on genetic/ecological similarity
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Genetic
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heritable differences among individuals of same species
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Plasticity
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variation among individuals w/ same genes
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Transect sampling
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sampling in which a biologist runs a line (transect) through a habitat and records every organism on either side of the line
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Quadrat sampling
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sampling in which a biologist divides a habitat into rectangles(quadrat) and records organisms found in random areas of the quadrat
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Species richness
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of species
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Relative abundance
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of species that are present
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Species evenness
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diversity index/how close in numbers each species are in an environment
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Endemic
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only occurring in one area
24
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Climate
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measure of the avg. pattern of variation in temperature, precipitation, and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time
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Biomes
the world's major communities, classified according to the predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular climate
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Chapparal
example of a biome; temperate shrubland and woodland; hot, dry summers; cool, moist winters; dense vegetation, vulnerable to summer fires (eg. California)
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Determinants of climate
incident solar radiation; air circulation driven by + solar radiation and earth's rotation
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Coriolis effect
result of the Earth's rotation on weather patterns and ocean currents; makes storms swirl clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
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Trade off
relationship b/n the benefits of a trait in one context and its costs in another context
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Principle of allocation
all life functions cannot be simultaneously maximized
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Autotrophs
can live exclusively on inorganic sources of carbon nitrogen, and other essential resources
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Photoautotrophs
use energy from sunlight to power metabolism, growth and resource-gathering
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Heterotrophs
use pre-formed organic molecules as food(source of carbon, nitrogen, energy, and other essential resources)
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Net photosynthesis
photosynthesis-respiration
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Gross photosynthesis
(change of oxygen in light) - (change of oxygen in dark)
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Gross primary productivity
total carbon fixed by plants per unit time
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Net primary productivity
gross primary productivity - respiration
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Root to shoot ratio
more nutrients, less sunlight(less root, more shoot) & vice versa; ratio of below ground to above ground biomass
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Liebig's law of minimum
production only occurs @ a ratio permitted by the most limiting factor
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Herbivores
consume plants, dentition for grinding plans, long gut to aid digestion of low quality plants, piercing/sucking mouth parts in come insects, enzymes to detoxify chem. defenses
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Carnivores
attack & consume animal material, adaptations to subdue/pursue prey, stinging cells/sharp teeth
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Omnivores
consume both plant and animal matter, generalist morphologies, may be indiscriminate feeders
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Dentritivores
consume dead plants or animals,
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Adaptation
evolutionary change in genotype that increases performance
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Acclimation
change in phenotype within an individual's lifetime to increase performance (often reversible)
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Fundamental niche
set of environmental conditions (e.g., temp., moisture, salinity) under which individuals of a species can grow and reproduce
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Isometric scaling
all dimensions increase the same amount as the size the organism changes
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Allometric scaling
disproportionate growth of a part or parts of an organism
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Metabolic rate
amount of energy expended daily at rest
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Density
number of individuals/area of a quadrat
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Closed population
immigration and emigration negligible; changes dominated by births and deaths
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Open population
immigration and emigration substantial
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Intrinsic rate of growth
rate of population if there is no density dependent forces acting upon the population
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Carrying capacity
number of organisms that a region can support w/out environmental degradation
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Survivorship (lx)
proportion of individuals surviving to age x
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Direct method (counting survivorship)
following a cohort through time
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Indirect method (counting survivorship)
determine age of death from remains
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Type I (survivorship)
low mortality until the latter stages of life (seen in humans, but not always)
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Type II (survivorship)
probability change of surviving to the next yr. is independent of age (seen in mammals, birds)
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Type III (survivorship)
high juvenile mortality but low adult mortality
| seen in trees, large reptiles
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Fecundity (mx)
average number of offspring produced by individual age x
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Positive interactions
interactions among two organisms that benefit at least one organism and does not harm the other; NO ALTRUISTS
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Commensalism/Facilitation
interaction in which one organism benefits while one is unharmed (+, 0)
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Mutualism
both organisms benefit (+,+)
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Four forms of stress that positive interactions can ameliorate
1. Physical stress (shading/sheltering)
2. Nutritional stress
3. Reproductive limitations (dispersal, fertilization)
4. Refuge for natural enemies (predators or competitors)
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Realized niche
part of fundamental niche that an organism occupies as a result of limiting factors present in its habitat
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Fundamental niche
full range of environmental conditions and resources an organism can possibly occupy and use when limiting factors are absent in its habitat
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Allee effect
correlation b/n population size/density and the mean individual fitness of a population or species
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Morphological species concept
based on morphological similarity
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Biological species concept
groups of actually/potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from such other groups (producing viable/fertile offspring and reproductive isolation, which allows independent evolution and is critical for speciation)
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Speciation
origin of two species from a common ancestral species with the evolution of biological barriers to gene flow (one lineage splits to two sister species; sister lineages are the same age)
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Node
point when one lineage splits into two
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Allopatric speciation
new species arise from geographically isolated species
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Sympatric speciation (sym=same)
new species arise from the same geographic region
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Ecological speciation
host or habitat speciation, disruptive selection, assortative mating?
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Polyploidy
genetic mechanism for abrupt reproductive isolation and speciation
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Autopolyploidy
duplication of one species' genome (e.g. diploid becomes tetraploid)
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Allopolyploidy
hybridization of two species followed by genome duplication
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Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibility
breakup of "coadapted gene complexes" causing independent mutations at interacting epistatic loci in different isolated populations
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Post-zygotic reproductive isolation
hybrid incompatibilities cause isolation b/n diverging species
> gertilization occurs and F1 zygotes are formed but are infertile, preventing gene flow b/n parental species
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Hybrid inviability (post-zygotic reproductive isolation)
mating occurs, zygote is formed but due to genetic incompatibilities during development, the hybrid zygote won't develop
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Hybrid sterility
hybrid zygotes develop into adults, but are sterile (do not for viable gametes) so gene flow is not possible
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Hybrid breakdown
fertile hybrids form b/n two species, but hybrids have low reproductive success or F2 offspring are sterile
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Pre-zygotic isolation
prevents fertilization
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Geographic isolation (allopatry)
allopatric species have little opportunity for mating; species with low dispersal ability can be isolated by short distances
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Ecological isolation
if two sympatric species use different habitats, they will rarely encounter each other; might be reprodctively compatible but they never actually meet so they are reproductively isolated
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Temporal isolation
species that breed at different times of day, at different seasons or years cannot mate
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Behavioral isolation
many organisms recognize members of their own species using highly specific courtships behaviors, songs, chemical signals or visual cues
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Mechanical isolation
regardless of how hard males and females try to mate, they are so mismatches anatomically that they cannot consummate the act
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Gametic incompatibility
even if mating is successful, gametes are incompatible and do not fuse to form a zygote
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Evolutionary radiation
rapid proliferation of many species from a single ancestor due to key innovations, ecological specialization, sexual selection, vacant ecological niches
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Adaptive radiation
species adapt to different ecological niches
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Key innovation
an adaptation which enhances the diversification rate of a lineage
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How do communities assemble?
1. newly created habitat
| 2. disturbance (he removal of organisms by physical/biological process
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Succession
pattern of changing species composition as a result of colonization and species interaction in a new habitat or after a disturbance
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Primary succession
a substrate that does not have any living organisms or legacy of former living organisms
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Secondary succession
a substrate that has been disturbed but contains a legacy of organisms that lived there prior
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Cyclical succession
succession due to recurring (cycle=cyclical) events (e.g fire) or changing interactions b/n plants and animals
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Indirect effect
a change in the abundance of a species resulting from its interaction w/ another species which is affected by a third species
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Keystone species
species that have a major effect on community structure and an effect disproportionate to their abundance; has low biomass
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Foundation species
species that have a major effect on community structure by virtue of their high biomass and habitat-forming characteristics
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Maintenance of diversity
1. Niche partitioning
2. Intermediate disturbance, predation, and productivity hypotheses (Goldilock hypotheses)
3. competitive intransitives
4. fluctuations in environmental conditions change faster than the time required for competitive exclusion can promote coexistence
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Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
only k-selected species survive low disturbance frequencies, only r-selected species survive high disturbance frequencies, both can survive medium disturbance frequencies causing them to coexist
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Intermediate predation hypothesis
only competitively dominant species survive in low predator density, well defended species in high predator density, many species coexist in medium predator density
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Intermediate productivity hypothesis
only a few species survive when there is low nutrient availability (harsh condition), only competitively dominant species survive where there's high nutrient availability and many species coexist where there's "just right" nutrient availability
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Competitive intransitives
opposite of competitive transitive (A beats B, B beats C therefore A must beat C/has an order); has no order (e.g) rock, paper, scissor)
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Ecosystem services
capacity of ecosystems to provide goods and services that satisfy human needs, either directly or indirectly
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Provisioning services
any time of benefit to people that can be extracted in nature
e.g. water, food, timber, medicine, etc
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Regulating services
benefit provided by ecosystem processes that moderate natural phenomena
e.g. water purification, decomposition, pollination, carbon storage, erosion control)
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Cultural services
a non-material benefit that contributes to the development and cultural advancement of people
e.g. recreation, creativity
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Eutrophication
excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water due to run off of nitrogen from land (dense growth of plant life and death of animal life)
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Scientific evidence to reconstruct the history of life
fossils in sedimentary rocks, physical dating methods (radioisoptopes, paleomagnetic dating), phylogenetic trees and molecular clocks
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Suess effect
signify the decrease in C14 in atmospheric CO2 owing to admixture of CO2 produced by the combustion of fossil fuels (more C12 in atmospheric CO2)
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History of life (How do we know?)
- fossils in sedimentary rocks
- physical dating methods (radioisotopes, paleomagnetic dating)
- phylogenetic trees, molecular clocks
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Geophysical events
| history of life
- tectonic events (moving continents, volcanic eruptions)
- climate change
- changing sea level (caused by climate change)
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Major biological events (history of life)
- origin of life
- rise of photosynthesis and atmospheric O2
- rise of eukaryotes
- rise of multicellular organisms
- diversification of phyla (major lineages)
- colonization of land and air
- mass extinctions followed by new radiations
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Cenozoic
recent life
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Mesozoic
middle life
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Paleozoic
old life
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Cyanobacteria
crucial prokaryote of the carbon, first to produce atmospheric oxygen > aeroic metabolism > birth of photosynthesis > birth of larger (more complex) organisms
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Ecosystem engineer
an organism that alters ecosystem structure and/or function
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Endosymbiotic theory
eukaryotes are originated from prokaryotes
>ancestral host made aerobic bacterium its endosymbiont, which led to the birth of the mitochondria
>FOR PLANT LINEAGES: ancestral host made cyanobacterium its endosymbiont, which led to the birth of chloroplast
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Endosymbiont
any organism that lives to mutual benefit within the body/cells of another organism
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Symbiotic
involving interaction b/n two different organisms living in a close physical association (can be mutualistic, commensalistic, parasitic)
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Precambrian period
BEFORE PALEOZOIC
| multicellular aquatic organisms evolve, more O2 levels
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Cambrian explosion
PALEOZOIC 1
rapid appearance of most modern aquatic animals (caused by oxygen, sexual reproduction, regulatory genes, eyes, predation)
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Ordovician period
PALEOZOIC 2
| diversification of marine organisms
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Mass extinction # 1
LATE ORDIVICIAN PERIOD
| cooling, glaciers, dropping sea level (loss of habitat), 75% species lost
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Challenges of colonizing land
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structural support
water and nutrient acquisition
desiccating atmosphere (dry)
gas exchange
mobility
mating and gametic dispersal
```
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Silurian period
PALEOZOIC 3
| rise of jawed fishes, land plants and terrestrial arthropods
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Devonian period
PALEOZOIC 4
| life takes off on land > soil formation bc roots, insects and amphibians appear
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Mass extinction #2
LATE DEVONIAN PERIOD
| climate fluctuations, marine anoxia (absence of oxygen), loss of reef ecosystems (loss of habitat), 75% species loss
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Carboniferous period
PALEOZOIC 5
| domination of horsetails and ferns (most fossil fuels of today), first reptiles appear, insect diversity (giant bugs)
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Permian period
PALEOZOIC 6
| reptiles, giant amphibians and insects coexist and are diverse, Pangaea, volcanic activity
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Mass extinction # 3
PERMIAN-TRIASSIC ("THE GREAT DYING")
volcanic eruptions disturn carbon cycle, warming, anoxia, acidification, ozone depletion, toxic metal poisoning, oxygen 15%, about 90% species extinct, ENDED PALEOZOIC ERA
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Triassic period
MESOZOIC 1
| breakup of Pangaea, conifers and ferns dominate forests, radiation of reptiles
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Mass extinction #4
TRIASSIC-JURASSIC
massive volcanic eruptions, destabilization of carbon cycle, rapid increase of atmospheric CO2 (rapid global warming), acidification (loss of shelly marine species), 65% of species go extinct
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Jurassic Period
MESOZOIC 2
| diversification of dinosaurs and fishes, first flowering plants
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Cretaceous period
dinosaurs dominate, rise of mammals and flowering plants
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Mass Extinction # 5
K/T (Cretaceous-Tertiary) ASTEROID IMPACT
75% species extinct including avian dinosaurs, ENDS MESOZOIC ERA, OPENED UP ECOLOGICAL NICHES FOR DIVERSIFICATION IN CENOZOIC
