BISC-225 TEST 3 Flashcards by Renee Glaser

Bone includes active, living tissues - bone tissue, cartilage, dense connective tissue, blood, and nervous tissue

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Bone Shapes: Long, Short, Flat, Irregular, and Sesamoid or round bones

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Long bones – forearm, thigh bones - longitudinal axes and expanded ends

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Short bones – wrist, ankle bones - somewhat cubelike

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Flat bones – ribs, scapulae, some skull bones - platelike structures with broad surfaces

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Irregular bones – vertebrae, facial bones - variety of shapes; usually connected to several other bones

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Sesamoid bones or round bones – kneecap - usually small and nodular, embedded within tendons

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Parts of a Long Bone: Diaphysis, Epiphysis, Periosteum, Compact bone, Spongy bone = cancellous bone, and Medullary cavity

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Diaphysis – shaft of a long bone

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Epiphysis – expanded end – covered with hyaline cartilage

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Periosteum – a fibrous connective tissue that encloses all of the bone except the articular cartilage.

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Periosteum – continuous with ligaments and tendons

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Periosteum – functions in the formation and repair of bone tissue

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process – a bony projection for attachment of ligaments and tendons

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grooves and openings – passageways for blood vessels and nerves

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depression – where a bone might articulate with another bone

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Compact bone(cortical bone) - tightly packed tissue making up the diaphysis .

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Spongy bone(cancellous bone) – comprises the epiphyses

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Spongy bone(cancellous bone) - trabeculae - consists of many branching bony plates

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Spongy bone(cancellous bone) - the spaces between the trabeculae plates help reduce the weight of bone

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Spongy bone(cancellous bone) - most highly developed in regions of epiphyses subjected to compressive forces

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Medullary cavity – hollow chamber within diaphysis

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Medullary cavity - filled with marrow: a type of soft connective tissue

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Bone cells called osteocytes are located in lacunae, which form concentric circles around central canals ( Haversian canals ).

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osteocytes - communicate with other cells by cellular processes passing through canaliculi

Collagen gives bone its strength and resilience, and inorganic salts make it hard and resistant to crushing.

osteocytes and lamellae around a central canal form an osteon, sometimes called an Haversian system.

Compact Bone - osteocytes and lamellae around a central canal form an osteon, sometimes called an Haversian system.

Compact Bone - each central canal contains blood vessels and nerve fibers 1) blood nourishes bones cells

Compact Bone - central canals are interconnected by transverse perforating canals

transverse perforating canals - contain larger blood vessels and nerves

Spongy Bone - osteocytes lie within trabeculae and get nutrients from substances diffusing into the canaliculi that lead to the surface of these thin, bony plates

Bones form by replacing existing connective tissue in one of two ways: intramembranous bones or endochondral bones

intramembranous bones - originate within sheetlike layers of connective tissue

endochondral bones - begin as masses of cartilage that are later replaced by bone

Intramembranous Bone - broad, flat bones of the skull

Intramembranous Bone - Mesenchyme - Osteoblasts 1. Membranelike layers of unspecialized, or primitive, connective tissues ( mesenchyme) appear at the sites of future bones. 2. Dense networks of blood vessels supply the tissues, which may form around the vessels. 3. These primitive cells, mesenchyme cells, enlarge and differentiate into bone-forming cells called osteoblasts. 4. Osteoblasts deposit bony matrix around themselves forming spongy bone. a. some of the spongy bone will become compact bone as spaces fill with bone matrix 5. Osteoblasts becomes surrounded by bone and become secluded in lacunae – matrix surrounding the cellular processes of osteoblasts forms canaliculi. a. once these cells are isolated in lacunae, they are called osteocytes 6. Mesenchyme cells on outside of developing bone give rise to the periosteum. 7. Osteoblasts on the inside of periosteum form a layer of compact bone over the surface of newly formed spongy bone.

Intramembranous Bone - mesenchyme - Membranelike layers of unspecialized, or primitive, connective tissues appear at the sites of future bones.

Intramembranous Bone - primitive cells, mesenchyme cells, enlarge and differentiate into bone-forming cells called osteoblasts.

Intramembranous Bone - Osteoblasts deposit bony matrix around themselves forming spongy bone. a. some of the spongy bone will become compact bone as spaces fill with bone matrix

Intramembranous Bone - Osteoblasts becomes surrounded by bone and become secluded in lacunae – matrix surrounding the cellular processes of osteoblasts forms canaliculi.

Intramembranous Bone - lacunae – matrix surrounding the cellular processes of osteoblasts forms canaliculi.

Osteoblasts - once these cells are isolated in lacunae, they are called osteocytes

Intramembranous Bone - Mesenchyme - cells on outside of developing bone give rise to the periosteum.

Intramembranous Bone - Osteoblasts on the inside of periosteum form a layer of compact bone over the surface of newly formed spongy bone.

intramembranous ossification - process of replacing connective tissue to form an intramembranous bone

Endochondral Bones 1. Bones develop from masses of hyaline cartilage shaped like future bony structures. 2. Cartilage cells enlarge and lacunae grow, then the surrounding matrix breaks down and cartilage cells die and degenerate. 3. A periosteum forms around the developing bone. 4. Blood vessels and undifferentiated cells invade the disintegrating tissue. a. some of the cells differentiate into osteoblasts and begin to form spongy bone in the spaces previously housing the cartilage 5. Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum deposit compact bone around the spongy bone. 6. The process of forming endochondral bone by the replacement of hyaline cartilage is endochondral ossification. a. bony tissue begins to replace cartilage in the center of the diaphysis – the primary ossification center 1) bones develop from ossification center to the ends of the cartilaginous structure b. secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses and spongy bone forms in all directions from them c. a band of cartilage, called the epiphyseal plate, or metaphysis, remains between the two ossification centers as the bone lengthens

Endochondral Bones - develop from masses of hyaline cartilage shaped like future bony structures.

Endochondral Bones - hyaline Cartilage cells enlarge and lacunae grow, then the surrounding matrix breaks down and cartilage cells die and degenerate.

Endochondral Bones - A periosteum forms around the developing bone.

Endochondral Bones - Blood vessels and undifferentiated cells invade the disintegrating tissue. a. some of the cells differentiate into osteoblasts and begin to form spongy bone in the spaces previously housing the cartilage

Endochondral Bones - Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum deposit compact bone around the spongy bone.

endochondral ossification - process of forming endochondral bone by the replacement of hyaline cartilage

endochondral ossification - primary ossification center - bony tissue begins to replace cartilage in the center of the diaphysis

endochondral ossification - primary ossification center - bones develop from ossification center to the ends of the cartilaginous structure

endochondral ossification - secondary ossification center - appear in the epiphyses and spongy bone forms in all directions from them

Epiphyseal plate, or metaphysis - a band of cartilage that remains between the two ossification centers as the bone lengthens

Epiphyseal Plate - first layer ( closest to epiphysis ) – resting cells; anchors plate to the epiphysis

Epiphyseal Plate - second layer - rows of many young cells undergoing mitosis; cartilaginous disc becomes thicker

Epiphyseal Plate - third layer – rows of older cells, left behind when new ones form; thickens the plate still more

Epiphyseal Plate - third layer - osteoblasts accumulate in the intercellular matrix adjacent to the oldest cells and secrete calcium salts, calcifying the matrix – the cells begin to die

Epiphyseal Plate - fourth layer – quite thin; composed of dead cells and calcified intercellular substance

Osteoclasts - break down the calcified matrix secreting an acid to dissolve the inorganic components and using lysosomal enzymes to digest the organic componenets.

Bone-building osteoblasts - invade the region and deposit bone tissue in place of the calcified cartilage.

Epiphyseal Plate - As long as the cartilaginous cells of the epiphyseal plates are active, the bone will lengthen. a. once the ossification centers of the diaphysis and epiphyses meet and the epiphyseal plates ossify, lengthening is no longer possible

Epiphyseal Plate - The bone thickens as compact bone is deposited underneath the periosteum.

Epiphyseal Plate - Osteoclasts erode bone tissue on the inside, creating the medullary cavity of the diaphysis.

Homeostasis of Bone Tissue - Osteoclasts and osteoblasts continually remodel the bones.

osteoclasts - resorb bone tissue

osteoblasts - deposit bone tissue

Bone Tissue - Osteoclasts and osteoblasts - about 10 - 20% of bone calcium is exchanged each year

Vitamin D - necessary for proper absorption of calcium in the small intestine.

Vitamin D - developing bones are softened if to little of this

Vitamin D - rickets in children; if to little

Vitamin D - osteomalcia in adults; if to little

vitamin D - found in milk and other dairy products fortified with it

Vitamin D - can form from dehydrocholesterol produced by cells of digestive tract

Dehydrocholesterol - carried to skin and when exposed to ultraviolet from the sun, is converted to a compound that becomes vitamin D

Vitamin A - necessary for osteoblast and osteoclast activity during normal development.

Vitamin C - necessary for collagen synthesis.

Vitamin C - absence of this vitamin causes the osteoblasts to produce less collagen and the resulting bones are abnormally slender and fragile

Vitamin C - about 90% of the protein that is part of bone is collagen

pituitary gland - growth hormone - stimulates division of cartilage cells in the epiphyseal plates.

pituitary gland - growth hormone - too little results in a child with pituitary dwarfism

pituitary gland - growth hormone - too much results in pituitary gigantism

acromegaly - an excess amount of pituitary gland growth hormone in an adult cause this condition

Thyroid hormone - can halt bone growth by causing premature ossification of the epiphyseal plates.

Thyroid hormone - too little may stunt growth, because without its stimulation, the pituitary gland does not produce enough growth hormone

Parathyroid hormone - stimulates an increase in the number and activity of osteoclasts.

Male and female sex hormones - promote formation of bone tissue.

Male and female sex hormones - abundant at puberty, causing the long bones to grow considerably – but also stimulate ossification of epiphyseal plates

Male and female sex hormones - estrogens have a stronger effect on epiphyseal plates than androgens

Physical stress - muscles pull on bones stimulating the bone tissue to thicken and strengthen

Physical stress - atrophy - lack of exercise, bones become thinner and weaker

Support, Protection, and Movement - Give shape to structures such as the head, face, thorax, and limbs.

Support, Protection, and Movement - Support the body’s weight.

Support, Protection, and Movement - Skull bones protect eyes, ears, brain; rib and shoulder girdle protect heart and lungs.

Support, Protection, and Movement - Whenever limbs move, bones and muscles interact.

Blood Cell Formation = Hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis - This process begins in the yolk sac, which lies outside the embryo. Later, blood cells are manufactured in the liver and spleen, and still later, in bone marrow.

There are two kinds of marrow: Red Marrow and Yellow Marrow

red marrow - functions in the formation of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets – red because of the oxygen-carrying pigment hemoglobin

red marrow - hemoglobin - oxygen-carrying pigment

Red Marrow - primarily found in spongy bone of the skull, ribs, clavicles, sternum, pelvis, and vertebrae – in adults

yellow marrow - stores fat and is inactive in blood cell production

yellow marrow - replaces the red marrow that is present in all the cavities of infant bones as we grow older

calcium phosphate - hydroxyapatite - Ca10( PO4 )6 (OH )2 - 70% of the intercellular matrix of bone

Calcium - required for blood clot formation, nerve impulse conduction, and muscle cell contraction.

Blood is low in calcium: parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone tissue, releasing calcium salts from the intercellular matrix.

Blood calcium level is too high: osteoclast activity is inhibited and alcitonin from the thyroid gland stimulates osteoblasts to form bone tissue, storing excess calcium in the matrix.

Bone stores phosphorus as calcium phosphate, as well as storing magnesium, sodium, potassium, and carbonate ions.

Harmful metallic elements - may accumulate in bone such as lead, radium, and strontium.

Bones - Normally it is 206, but some people have more or less.

Bones of the skull joined to each other by sutures

sutural bones ( wormian bones ) - extra bones, develop in the sutures.

sesamoid bones - extra, small, round bones may develop in tendons.

Axial Skeleton: skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, thoracic cage, and middle ear bone.

skull – the cranium and facial bones

hyoid bone – located in the neck between the lower jaw and the larynx – supports the tongue

vertebral column – cartilaginous intervertebral discs -consists of many vertebrae separated this.

vertebral column - Sacrum - several distal vertebrae fuse to form tthis

vertebral column - coccyx - a small, rudimentary tailbone is attached to the sacrum’s distal portion

thoracic cage – composed of twelve pairs of ribs and the sternum

middle ear bones – transfer sound vibrations to the hearing receptors

Appendicular Skeleton: pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs

pectoral girdle – formed by a scapula and clavicle on both sides of body

upper limbs – humerus, radius, ulna – these articulate with each other at the elbow joint

upper limb - the wrist is at the distal end – consists of eight carpals

metacarpals - the five bones of the palm

phalanges - the fourteen finger bones

pelvic girdle – formed by two coxae – joined anteriorly to each other and posteriorly to the sacrum

lower limbs – femur, tibia, and fibula – femur and tibia articulate with each other at the knee joint, where the patella covers the anterior surface

tarsals - seven at the distal ends of the tibia and fibula a

metatarsals - the five bones of the instep

phalanges - the fourteen toe bones

Skull: cranium, facial skeleton, and infantile skull

Cranium - Encloses and protects the brain, its surface provides attachments for muscles that make chewing and head movements possible.

Cranium - sinuses - Air-filled cavities, which are lined with mucous membranes and connected to the nasal cavity, reduce the weight of the skull and serve as resonant sound chambers for the voice.

Cranium: Frontal, Partial, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid bones.

Frontal bone – forms anterior portion above the eyes

Frontal bone - supraorbital foramen ( supraorbital notch) – upper margin of orbit through which blood vessels and nerves pass to the tissues of the forehead

Frontal bone - two frontal sinuses

Parietal bones – one on each side of the skull just behind the frontal bone

Parietal bones - fused at the midline along the sagittal suture

Parietal bones - meet the frontal bone along the coronal suture

Occipital bone – forms the back of the skull and the base of the cranium

Occipital bone - joins the parietal bones along the lambdoidal suture

Occipital bone - foramen magnum - houses nerve fibers from the brain that pass through and enter the vertebral canal to become part of the spinal cord

Occipital bone - occipital condyles - are rounded processes which articulate with the first vertebra of the vertebral column

Temporal bones – form parts of the sides and the base of the cranium

Temporal bones - joins the parietal bone along the squamosal suture

Temporal bones - external acoustic meatus - leads inward to parts of the ear

Temporal bones - mandibular fossae - depressions that articulate with condyles of the mandible

Temporal bones - mastoid process - provides attachment for certain muscles of the neck

Temporal bones - styloid process - anchors muscles associated with the tongue and pharynx

Temporal bones - carotid canal - transmits the carotid artery

Temporal bones - jugular foramen - accommodates the jugular vein

Temporal bones - zygomatic process - joins the zygomatic bone and helps form the prominence of the cheek

Sphenoid bone – consists of a central part and two winglike structures that extend laterally toward each side of the skull – helps form the base of the skull, the sides of the skull, and floors and sides of the orbits

Sphenoid bone - sella turcica - a saddle-shaped depression within which the pituitary gland lies

Sphenoid bone - two sphenoid sinuses

Ethmoid bone – consists of two masses, one on each side of the nasal cavity

Ethmoid bone - two masses are joined horizontally by thin cribiform plates

Ethmoid bone - cribiform plates - form part of the roof of the nasal cavity and nerves associated with the sense of smell pass through tiny opening ( olfactory foramina )

Ethmoid bone - perpendicular plate - projects downward in the midline to form most of the nasal septum

Ethmoid bone - superior and middle conchae - delicate scroll-like plates that project inward from the lateral portions of the ethmoid bone – they support mucous membranes that line the nasal cavity

Ethmoid bone - superior and middle conchae - moisten, warm, and filter incoming air

Ethmoid bone - ethmoidal sinuses - many small air spaces

Ethmoid bone - crista galli - triangular process projecting upward into the cranial cavity and provides attachment for the meninges of the brain

Facial skeleton - made up of 13 immovable bones and one movable bone

Facial skeleton has: maxillae, palatine bones, palatine bones, lacrimal bones, nasal bones, vomer bone, inferior nasal conchae, and mandible.

Maxillae - form the upper jaw

Maxillae - all the immovable facial bones articulate with these bones

Maxillae - hard palate – anterior portion of this is formed by palatine processes of the maxillary bones

Maxillae - contain the sockets for upper teeth

Maxillae - alveolar arch - teeth are located in cavities

Maxillae - maxillary sinuses - are the largest of the sinuses

Palatine bones - L-shaped bones whose horizontal portions form the posterior section of the hard palate and the floor of the nasal cavity; the perpendicular portions help form the lateral walls of the nasal cavity

Zygomatic bones - responsible for the prominences of the cheeks below and to the sides of the eyes

Zygomatic bones - temporal processes extend posteriorly to join the zygomatic process of the temporal bone

Zygomatic bones - temporal process and zygomatic process - these two processes make up the zygomatic arch

Lacrimal bones – thin, scalelike structure located in the medial wall of each orbit

Nasal bones - long, thin, and nearly rectangular; fused at midline, where they form the bridge of the nose.

Vomer bone - located along the midline within the nasal cavity

Vomer bone - joins the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid to form the nasal septum

Inferior nasal conchae - fragile, scroll-shaped bones attached to the lateral walls of the nasal cavity

Inferior nasal conchae - support mucous membranes within the nasal cavity

Mandible - the lower jawbone – horizontal, horseshoe-shaped body with a flat ramus projecting upward at each end

Mandible - mandibular condyles - articulate with the mandibular fossae of temporal bones

Mandible - coronoid processes - provide attachments for muscles used in chewing

Mandible - alveolar border - contains the hollow sockets for the lower teeth

Mandible - mandibular foramen - on the medial side of mandible; admits blood vessels and a nerve

Mandible - mental foramen - opens on the outside near the point of the jaw; branches of blood vessels and the nerve

Infantile Skull - fontanels - at birth, fibrous membranes connect the cranial bones.

Infantile Skull - fontanels - permit movement between the bones so that molding can occur during childbirth

Infantile Skull - fontanels close as the cranial bones grow together.

Infantile Skull - posterior fontanel - usually closes about two months after birth

Infantile Skull - anterior fontanel - may not close until the middle or end of the second year

VERTEBRAL COLUMN - Extends from the skull to pelvis and forms vertical axis of skeleton

VERTEBRAL COLUMN - intervertebral discs - composed of vertebrae that are separated by pads of fibrocartilage; connected to each other by ligaments.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN - Supports head and trunk of body; protects the spinal cord, which passes through a vertebral canal.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN - infant has 33 separate bones while an adult only has 26 bones

VERTEBRAL COLUMN - 5 bones have fused to form a sacrum

VERTEBRAL COLUMN - 4 bones have fused to form the coccyx

VERTEBRAL COLUMN: curvatures to give the column some resiliency: thoracic, pelvic, cervical, lumbar

Vertebra - drum-shaped body, which forms the thick, anterior portion of the bone.

Vertebra - support the weight of the head and trunk

Vertebra - separated by intervertebral discs that cushion and soften forces caused by movements such as walking and jumping

Vertebra - joined to each other by anterior longitudinal ligaments and posterior longitudinal ligaments

Vertebra - Two pedicles project posteriorly from the body

Vertebra - Two pedicles - form sides of the vertebral foramen.

Vertebra - laminae - two plates arise from the pedicles and fuse in the back to form the spinous process.

Vertebra - The pedicles, laminae, and spinous process together complete a bony vertebral arch around the vertebral foramen.

Vertebra - Transverse processes - project laterally and posteriorly from the body.

Vertebra - Superior and inferior articulating surfaces -bear cartilage-covered facets by which each vertebra is joined to the one above it and the one below it.

Vertebra - Intervertebral foramina - openings that provide passageways for spinal nerves.

Cervical Vertebrae - Seven vertebrae; smallest, but their bone tissues are denser than any those of any other vertebrae

Cervical Vertebrae - Transverse processes have transverse formanina.

Cervical Vertebrae - transverse formanina - passage ways for arteries leading to the brain.

Cervical Vertebrae - Second through sixth vertebrae have a bifid spinous process.

Cervical Vertebrae - vertebra prominens - Seventh spinous process is longer and protrudes beyond others – can be felt

Cervical Vertebrae - atlas - first vertebra, supports the head.

Cervical Vertebrae - atlas - has practically no body or spine

Cervical Vertebrae - atlas - two kidney-shaped facets on superior surface, which articulate with occipital condyles

Cervical Vertebrae - axis - second vertebra, bears a toothlike dens ( odontoid process ) on its body.

Cervical Vertebrae - axis - dens projects upward and lies in the ring of the atlas

Cervical Vertebrae - axis - atlas pivots around the axis

Thoracic Vertebrae - Twelve vertebrae; body size increases as they move inferiorly beginning with the third one.

Thoracic Vertebrae - Downward, sloping spinous process.

Lumbar Vertebrae - These five vertebrae in the small of the back support more weight than the other vertebrae.

Lumbar Vertebrae - Have larger and stronger bodies.

Lumbar Vertebrae - Transverse processes project posteriorly at sharp angles.

Lumbar Vertebrae - Spinous processes are short, thick, and are nearly horizontal.

Sacrum - Composed of five vertebrae that develop separately but gradually fuse together between the ages of eighteen and thirty.

Sacrum - Spinous processes form the median sacral crest

Sacrum - median sacral crest - Nerves and blood vessels pass through dorsal sacral foramina located to the side of the crest.

Sacrum - united with the coxae of the pelvis at its auricular surfaces by fibrocartilage of the sacroiliac joints.

Sacrum - Forms the posterior wall of the pelvic cavity

Sacrum - sacral promontory - The upper anterior margin

Sacrum - The vertebral foramina of the sacrum form the sacral canal, which continues through the sacrum to the sacral hiatus

Sacrum - anterior sacral foramina - Four pairs provide passageways for nerves and blood vessels on the ventral surface.

Coccyx - Lowest portion of the vertebral column

Coccyx - composed of four vertebrae that fuse between the ages of twenty-five and thirty.

Coccyx - Attached by ligaments to the margins of the sacral hiatus.

Coccyx - Moves forward, acting like a shock absorber, when sitting.

Ribs - Twelve pairs usually

Ribs - true ribs ( vertebrosternal ) - first seven pair; join to sternum by costal cartilages

Ribs - false ribs - second five pairs

Ribs - false ribs - ribs 8-10 are vertebrochondral – join the cartilages of the 7th rib in order to attach to the sternum

Ribs - false ribs - floating ribs - ribs 11-12 are vertebral – do not attach to the sternum at all, sometimes

Typical Ribs - long, slender shaft, which curves around chest and slopes downward

Typical Ribs - an enlarged head on the posterior end by which it articulates with a facet on the body of its own vertebra and with the body of the next higher vertebra

Typical Ribs - the neck is flattened, lateral to the head, where ligaments attach

Typical Ribs - a tubercle, close to the head of the rib, articulates with the transverse process of the vertebra

Typical Ribs - costal cartilages are composed of hyaline cartilage

THORACIC CAGE: Sternum and Ribs

Sternum - A flat, elongated bone along the midline in the anterior portion of the thoracic cage

Sternum - develops in three parts: upper manubrium, middle body, lower xiphoid process

Sternum - The manubrium and body articulate with costal cartilages.

Sternum - The manubrium articulates with the clavicles by facets on its superior border.

Sternum - Xiphoid begins as a piece of cartilage; slowly ossifies and by middle age it usually fuses to the body.

PECTORAL GIRDLE - an incomplete ring; supports the upper limbs and is an attachment for several muscles

PECTORAL GIRDLE has: Clavicles and Scapulae

Clavicles - Slender, rodlike bones with elongated S-shapes. Run horizontally between the sternum and the shoulders.

Clavicles - Sternal ends articulate with the manubrium

Clavicles - acromial ends join the scapulae

Clavicles - Brace the freely movable scapulae

Scapulae - Broad, somewhat triangular bones located on either side of the upper back

Scapulae - Have flat bodies with concave anterior surfaces

Scapulae - Posterior surface divided into unequal portions by a spine: supraspinous fossa and infraspinous fossa

Scapulae - supraspinous fossa – located above spine

Scapulae - infraspinous fossa – located below spine

Scapulae - Spine leads to a head, which bears two processes: acromion process and coracoid process

Scapulae - Spine - acromion process - forms the tip of the shoulder

Scapulae - Spine - coracoid process - curves anteriorly and inferiorly to the clavicle

Between the acromion and coracoid processes is a depression, the glenoid cavity

Glenoid cavity - articulates with the head of the humerus.

Three borders to the scapula: superior border, axillary or lateral border, and vertebral or medial border

UPPER LIMB: Humerus, Radius, Ulna, and Head

Humerus - Head fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula.

Humerus - Greater and lesser tubercles - lie below the head – provide attachments for muscles that move upper limb at the shoulder.

Humerus - Intertubercular sulcus - lies between tubercles – tendon from the biceps brachii passes through this to the shoulder.

Humerus - Deltoid tuberosity – rough V-shaped area for attachment of the deltoid muscle.

Humerus - Two condyles at the distal end: capitulum and trochlea

Humerus - capitulum – on the lateral side for articulation with the radius

Humerus - trochlea - on the medial side for articulation with the ulna

Humerus - Two epicondyles are above the condyles on either side for attachments of muscles and ligaments of the elbow

coronoid fossa - lies between the epicondyles anteriorly – receives the coronoid process of the ulna when the arm is flexed.

olecranon fossa - lies on the posterior surface – receives the olecranon process of the ulna when the arm is extended.

Radius - Lateral bone of the forearm; shorter than the ulna.

Radius - Thick, disclike head at the proximal end articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and with the radial notch of the ulna. a. allows the radius to rotate freely

Radius - radial tuberosity - on the shaft just below the head serves as an attachment for the biceps brachii muscle

Radius - styloid process - at the distal end provides attachments for ligaments of the wrist.

Ulna - Medial bone of the forearm; longer than the radius.

Ulna - trochlear notch - the proximal end articulates with the trochlea of the humerus.

Ulna - olecranon process - provides an attachment for the triceps brachii muscle.

Ulna - olecranon process - fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus

Ulna - coronoid process - fits into the coronoid fossa of the humerus.

Ulna - The knoblike head at the distal end articulates laterally with the ulnar notch of the radius and inferiorly with a disc of fibrocartilage.

Ulna - medial styloid process - provides attachments for ligaments of the wrist.

Hand - carpal bones - wrist consists of eight, found in two rows of four bones. a. together they comprise the carpus

Hand - metacarpal bones - palm consists of five – articulate distally with the phalanges and proximally with the carpals. a. numbered 1 to 5, beginning with the metacarpal of the thumb

Hand - phalanges - fingers consist of fourteen – three in each finger, two in the thumb

Ossa Coxae - coxal bone consists of three parts – an ischium, an ilium, and a pubis bone.

ischium, an ilium, and a pubis bone - fuse together in a region called the acetabulum

acetabulum – a depression on the lateral surface that receives the head of the femur

Ilium - the largest and most superior portion

ilium - margin is the iliac crest

ilium - iliac fossa is the smooth, concave surface on the anterior aspect

ilium - joins the sacrum posteriorly at the sacroiliac joint

ilium - anterior superior iliac spine - can be felt lateral to the groin.

ilium - anterior superior iliac spine - important surgical landmark

ilium - anterior superior iliac spine - attachments for ligaments and muscles.

ilium - posterior superior iliac spine

ilium - greater sciatic notch – several nerves and blood vessels pass through this

ischium - forms the lowest portion; L-shaped

ischium - ischial tuberosity - supports the weight of the body during sitting

ischium - ischial spine - used as a guide for determining pelvis size.

Pubis - makes up the anterior portion

Pubis - symphysis pubis - two pubic bones meet at the midline to form this

Pubis - obturator foramen - largest foramen in the body

False pelvis - bounded posteriorly by the lumbar vertebrae, laterally by the flared parts of the iliac bones, and anteriorly by the abdominal wall.

True pelvis - bounded posteriorly by the sacrum and coccyx and laterally and anteriorly by the lower ilium, ischium, and pubis bones.

Female Pelvis - iliac bones are usually broader

Female Pelvis - angle of the pubic arch is greater

Female Pelvis - more distance between the ischial spines and ischial tuberosities

Female Pelvis - sacral curvature may be shorter and flatter.

Bones of the female are usually lighter, more delicate, and show less evidence of muscle attachments.

LOWER LIMB includes: Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, and Foot.

Femur - Longest bone in the body.

Femur - Large, rounded head projects medially into the acetabulum of the coxa.

Femur - pit called the fovea capitis marks the attachment of a ligament

Femur - Two large processes located beneath the neck: greater trochanter and lesser trochanter

Femur - greater trochanter - a superior, lateral

Femur - lesser trochanter - an inferior, medial

Femur - greater trochanter and lesser trochanter - provide attachments for muscles

Femur - linea aspera - longitudinal crest is located on the posterior surface of the middle third of the shaft.

Femur - Two rounded processes at the distal end for articulation with the tibia: lateral condyle and medial condyle

Femur - Two processes at the distal end for muscle and ligament attachment: medial epicondyle and lateral epicondyle

Patella - kneecap; a sesamoid bone located in a tendon passing over the knee

Tibia - shinbone; the larger of the two lower leg bones; medial bone.

Tibia - Proximal end has two condyles for articulation with the femur: medial condyle and lateral condyle

Tibia - tibial tuberosity - located beneath the condyles provides attachment for the patellar ligament.

Tibia - anterior crest - extends downward from the tuberosity.

Tibia - distal end expands medially to form the medial malleolus

Tibia - medial malleolus – an attachment for ligaments.

Tibia - depression on the lateral surface of the distal end articulates with the talus of the ankle.

Fibula - lateral bone of the lower leg; long, slender

Fibula - Proximal head articulates with the tibia just below the lateral condyle a. does not bear any body weight nor enter into the knee joint

Fibula - distal lateral malleolus articulates with the ankle

Foot - ankle or tarsus - made up of seven tarsal bones

Foot - talus - can move freely where it joins the tibia and fibula, thus forming the ankle

Foot - calcaneus or heel bone - largest tarsal bone – helps support the weight of the body and provides an attachment for muscles that move the foot

Foot - instep or metatarsus - consists of five elongated metatarsal bones

Foot - metatarsal bones - numbered 1-5, beginning on the medial side

Foot - metatarsal bones - longitudinal arch extends from the heel to the toe

Foot - metatarsal bones - transverse arch stretches across the foot

Foot - metatarsal bones - arches provide a stable, springy base for the body

Foot - phalanges - of the toes are shorter than those of the fingers. a. there are three in each toe, but only two in the great toe

joints, or articulations - functional junctions between bones

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS: by types of tissues that bind bones at junction

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS: by degree of movement possible – some overlap of the two types of classification – structural is most commonly used

Fibrous Joints: Syndesmosis, Suture, and Gomphosis

Fibrous Joints - Dense connective tissue containing many collagenous fibers holds bones together. a. no appreciable movement usually

Fibrous Joints - Syndesmosis – bones are bound by long fibers of connective tissue that form an interosseous ligament.

Syndesmosis - interosseous ligament - flexible and may be twisted, so there is slight movement allowed here – amphiarthrotic

Fibrous Joints - Suture - found between the flat bones of the skull where the bones are united by a thin layer of connective tissue called a sutural ligament

Fibrous Joints - sutural ligament - immovable joints – synarthrotic

Fibrous Joints - Gomphosis - formed by union of cone-shaped bony process in a bony socket.

Fibrous Joints - Gomphosis - peglike root of tooth fastened to jawbone by a periodontal ligament – made of bundles of thick collagenous fibers-

Fibrous Joints - Gomphosis - a synarthrotic joint

Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondrosis, Symphysis

Cartilaginous Joints: Hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage connects the bones.

Synchondrosis – bands of hyaline cartilage connect the bones.

Synchondrosis - epipyhseal plate - many are temporary that disappear during growth

Synchondrosis - epipyhseal plate - synarthrotic joint

Synchondrosis - epipyhseal plate - when ossification is complete, the joint becomes a synostosis, a bony joint

synchondrosis - manubrium and the first rib form this– these two bones are united by costal cartilage – a synarthrotic joint

Symphysis – articular surfaces of bones covered with hyaline cartilage, and the cartilage is attached to a pad of fibrocartilage.

Symphysis - symphysis pubis in the pelvis - amphiarthrotic

Symphysis - intervertebral discs - amphiarthrotic

Synovial Joints - These diarthrotic joints allow free movement and consist of articular cartilage, a joint capsule, and a synovial membrane which secretes synovial fluid.

SYNOVIAL JOINT - Articular ends of the bones are covered with a thin layer of hyaline cartilage.

SYNOVIAL JOINT - resists wear and minimizes friction

SYNOVIAL JOINT - bone beneath the cartilage is cancellous ( subchondral plate) – absorbs shocks

SYNOVIAL JOINT - tubular joint capsule - consisting of two distinct layers holds bones together.

SYNOVIAL JOINT - tubular joint capsule - outer layer consists largely of dense connective tissue – the fibers are attached to the periosteum – this layer completely encloses other parts of the joint

SYNOVIAL JOINT - ligaments - bundles of strong, tough collagenous fibers reinforce the joint capsule and help bind the articular ends

tubular joint capsule - synovial membrane - inner layer consists of shiny, vascular lining of loose connective tissue

synovial membrane – surrounds a closed sac called the synovial cavity

synovial membrane - synovial fluid - secretes a clear, viscous fluid into the cavity

synovial fluid - similar in consistency to uncooked egg white

synovial fluid - moistens and lubricates the smooth cartilaginous surfaces within the joint

synovial fluid - helps supply articular cartilage with nutrients

synovial fluid - less than 0.5 ml of this in the knee joint

synovial membrane - may have villi as well as larger folds and projections that extend into the cavity a) these fill spaces and irregularities of the joint cavity b) they increase surface area of the membrane c) may store adipose tissue and form movable fatty pads in the joint d) also reabsorbs fluid, important when a joint cavity is injured or infected

menisci - synovial joints are partially or completely divided into compartments by discs of fibrocartilage

menisci - each meniscus attaches to the fibrous layer of the joint capsule peripherally, and its free surface projects into the joint cavity

bursae - some joints have fluid-filled sacs

bursae - these synovial fluid-filled sacs are commonly located between the skin and underlying bony prominences – e.g. patella of knee, olecranon process of elbow

bursae - their names tell their positions: suprapatellar bursa, infrapatellar bursa, and prepatellar bursa

SYNOVIAL JOINTS: Ball-and-socket joint, Condyloid joint, Gliding joint ( plane ), Hinge joint, Pivot joint, and Saddle joint

Ball-and-socket joint - consists of a bone with a globular or slightly egg-shaped head that articulates with the cup-shaped cavity of another bone.

Ball-and-socket joint - wider range of motion than others

Ball-and-socket joint - rotational movement around a central axis

Ball-and-socket joint - shoulder, hip

Condyloid joint – ovoid condyle of one bone fits into elliptical cavity of another

Condyloid joint - variety of movements in different planes – not rotational

Condyloid joint - between metacarpals and phalanges

Gliding joint ( plane ) – the articulating surfaces are nearly flat or slightly curved.

Gliding joint ( plane ) – allow sliding and twisting movements

Gliding joint ( plane ) – carpals, tarsals, adjacent vertebrae, sacroiliac joint, ribs 2-7 connecting with the sternum

Hinge joint – the convex surface of one bone fits into concave surface of another.

Hinge joint – movement in one plane only

Hinge joint – phalanges, knee, elbow

Pivot joint – cylindrical surface of one bone rotates within a ring formed of bone and fibrous tissue of a ligament.

Pivot joint – movement around a central axis

Pivot joint – proximal ends of radius and ulna, atlas and axis

Saddle joint – articulating surface of both bones have convex and concave regions.

Saddle joint – variety of movements in two planes

Saddle joint – carpal and metacarpal of thumb

Flexion – bending parts so that the angle between them decreases

Extension – straightening parts so that the angle between them increases

Hyperextension – extension beyond the anatomical position.

Dorsiflexion – bending the foot at the ankle toward the shin.

Plantar flexion – bending the foot at the ankle toward the sole.

Abduction – moving a body part away from the midline.

Adduction – moving a body part toward the midline.

Rotation – moving a part around an axis.

Circumduction – moving a part so that its end follows a circular path.

Supination – turning the hand so the palm is upward

Pronation – turning the hand so the palm is downward

Eversion – turning the foot so the sole faces laterally.

Inversion – turning the foot so the sole faces medially

Protraction – moving a part forward.

Retraction – moving a part backward

Elevation – raising a part

Depression – lowering a part.

Shoulder Joint - ball-and-socket joint that consists of the rounded head of the humerus and the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula

Shoulder Joint - The joint capsule is very loose and by itself is unable to keep the bones of the joint in close contact

Shoulder Joint - Muscles and tendons reinforce the capsule and several ligaments help prevent displacement of the articulating surfaces: coracohumeral ligament, glenohumeral ligaments, transverse humeral ligament, and glenoid labrum

Shoulder Joint - coracohumeral ligament – connects the coracoid process of the scapula to the greater tubercle of the humerus

Shoulder Joint - glenohumeral ligaments – three bands of fibers that extend from the edge of the glenoid cavity to the lesser tubercle and the anatomical neck of the humerus

Shoulder Joint - transverse humeral ligament – narrow sheet of connective tissue fibers that runs between the lesser and greater tubercles of the humerus.

Shoulder Joint - transverse humeral ligament - together with the intertubercular sulcus of the humerus, the ligament forms a canal through which the long head of the biceps brachii muscle passes

Shoulder Joint - glenoid labrum – composed of fibrocartilage; attached along the margin of the glenoid cavity and forms a rim with a thin, free edge that deepens the cavity

Several bursae are associated with the shoulder joint: subscapular bursa, subdeltoid bursa, subacromial bursa and subcoracoid bursa

Shoulder Joint - Very wide range of movement, due to the looseness of its attachments and the relatively large articular surface of the humerus compared to the shallow depth of the glenoid cavity. a. flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction

Elbow Joint - Complex structure that includes two articulations – a hinge joint between the trochlea of the humerus and the trochlear notch of the ulna and a gliding joint between the capitulum of the humerus and a shallow depression on the head of the radius.

Elbow Joint - Ligaments thicken the hinge and gliding joints and fibers from the brachialis muscle reinforce its anterior surface.

Elbow Joint - ulnar collateral ligament – located in medial wall of the capsule

Elbow Joint - ulnar collateral ligament - anterior portion connects the medial epicondyle of the humerus to the margin of the coronoid process of the ulna

Elbow Joint - ulnar collateral ligament - posterior portion is attached to the medial epicondyle of the humerus and to the olecranon process of the ulna

Elbow Joint - radial collateral ligament – strengthens the lateral wall of the capsule

Elbow Joint - radial collateral ligament – extends between the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the anular ligament of the radius

Elbow Joint - radial collateral ligament - anular ligament - attaches to the margin of the trochlear notch of the ulna and encircles the head of the radius, keeping the head in contact with the radial notch of the ulna

Elbow Joint - synovial membrane of the elbow capsule partially divides the joint into humerus-ulnar and humerus-radial portions

Elbow Joint - Adipose tissue forms fatty pads between the synovial membrane and the fibrous layer of the capsule.

Elbow Joint - Hinge movements occur between the humerus and the ulna – flexion and extension.

Elbow Joint - Head of radius rotates in the annular ligament – allows pronation and supination of the hand.

Hip Joint - ball-and-socket joint that consists of the head of the femur and the acetabulum of the coxa

Hip Joint - Ligamentum capitis - attaches to a pit ( fovea capitis ) on the head of the femur and to connective tissue within acetabulum. a. carries blood vessels to the head of the femur

Hip Joint - acetabular labrum - A horseshoe-shaped ring of fibrocartilage at the rim of the acetabulum encloses the head of the femur and helps hold it securely in place

Hip Joint - iliofemoral ligament – consists of a Y-shaped band of very strong fibers that connects the anterior inferior iliac spine of the coxa to the intertrochanteric line extending between the greater and lesser trochanters of the femur. 1) strongest ligament in the body

Hip Joint - pubofemoral ligament – extends between the superior portion of the pubis and the iliofemoral ligament

Hip Joint - ischiofemoral ligament – originates on the ischium just posterior to the acetabulum and blends with the fibers of the joint capsule

Hip Joint - Muscles surround the joint capsule

Hip Joint - Wide variety of movements: extension, flexion, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction

Knee Joint - Largest and most complex of the synovial joints

Knee Joint - Consists of the medial and lateral condyles at the distal end of the femur

Knee Joint - consists of the medial and lateral condyles at the proximal end of the tibia.

Knee Joint - femur articulates with the patella.

Knee Joint - Functions as a modified hinge joint ( flexion and extension ) but some rotation is allowed when the knee is flexed, and the joint between the femur and patella is a gliding joint

Knee Joint - The joint capsule is relatively thin, but ligaments and tendons of several muscles greatly strengthen it

Knee Joint - patellar ligament – a continuation of a tendon from the quadriceps femoris muscle group – consists of a strong, flat band that extends from the margin of the patella to the tibial tuberosity

Knee Joint - oblique popliteal ligament – connects the lateral condyle of the femur to the margin of the head of the tibia

Knee Joint - arcuate popliteal ligament – appears as a Y-shaped system of fibers that extends from the lateral condyle of the femur to the head of the fibula

Knee Joint - tibial collateral ligament – connects the medial condyle of the femur to the medial condyle of the tibia

Knee Joint - fibular collateral ligament – consists of a strong, round cord located between the lateral condyle of the femur and the head of the fibula

Knee Joint - two cruciate ligaments – within the joint, help prevent displacement of the articulating surfaces

Knee Joint - anterior cruciate ligament – originates from the anterior intercondylar area of the tibia and extends to the lateral condyle of the femur

Kneee Joint - posterior cruciate ligament – connects the posterior intercondylar area of the tibia to the medial condyle of the femur

Knee Joint - anterior cruciate ligament and posterior cruciate ligament - Two fibrocartilage menisci separate the articulating surfaces and help to align them.

Knee Joint - Several bursae: suprapatellar bursa, prepatellar bursa, and infrapatellar bursa

BISC-225 TEST 3 Flashcards

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