Black American Civil Rights, 1955-80

Question 1

Why did the civil rights movement change after 1955

Answer 1

Montgomery bus boycott brought new civil rights leader to prominence, shift in how campaigns were run
Became major issue in the USA, events/tactics moved more quickly and caught eye of the world more, partly due to TV
Civil rights organisers aware of putting themselves in public eye, choosing causes, and people involved
Montgomery bus boycott became big news due to: stubborn city government, charismatic leader, determined black population which made the media pick it up

Question 2

Why did the Montgomery bus boycott happen

Answer 2

1 December: Rosa parks arrested for sitting at the front of the bus
- NAACP lawyer took the case
- next day, Montgomery improvement association (MIA) made to organise boycott

Question 3

What was the segregation on buses in Montgomery

Answer 3

Black passengers had to sit at the back of the bus and stand if allocated seats were full
Give up their seats to white people

Question 4

Previous protests to bus segregation in Montgomery

Answer 4

Boycott in 1900, challenged at regular intervals since
Two women arrested for refusing to give up their seats in 1955
- Claudette Colvin, 15 year old girl arrested in march, unmarried and pregnant
- Mary Louise smith, 18 year old woman arrested in October, from a poor family, dad had a drinking problem
- so NAACP rejected their case due to their circumstances

Question 5

What did the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) do

Answer 5

Organised the boycott
- chose MLK as leader, newly appointed Baptist minister, right man in right place at right time
- leafleted and held meetings to publicise the arrest and boycott
- organised taxis and other transports to get to work if they couldn’t walk, e.g. car pools

Question 6

What was the Montgomery bus boycott

Answer 6

Began on 5th December 1955
Over 75% of bus users were black, 90% stayed away from buses
Lasted for 380 days
King kept to rules of non-violent protest, kept media informed about events

Question 7

Reaction to Montgomery bus boycott

Answer 7

Media interest grew as it went on
City government penalised taxi drivers for taking fares
Homes of king and NAACP leader (E.D. Nixon) firebombed, begged protesters to stay calm and not riot
Government imprisoned king and others for conspiracy to boycott, people lost their jobs

Question 8

Effect of Montgomery bus boycott

Answer 8

Built up so much publicity, Supreme Court had to act
- 13th November 1956, bus segregation ruled unconstitutional
21st December, black people began to ride buses again, desegregated ones

However:
- hardened racial divide, next local elections, white candidates who favoured segregation elected
- 3 days after buses desegregated, MLK’s house firebombed and snipers shot at black passengers sitting in white seats (pregnant woman wounded in both legs)

Question 9

What did MLK do

Answer 9

Became face of black American civil rights
Got media attention, despite other figures being present at the time
Very media-conscious
Set up Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957
Refined non-violent protest rules (to create best possible impression in media)
- always make it clear who is the oppressor and who is oppressed, never give impression of violent black American
- getting arrested, as publicly as possible, and going peaceably, is good publicity (before protest, campaigners taught how to go limp if police tried to move them from sit-ins)
- accept as many white people as possible on protests, king happy to meet with white officials who might help the cause

Question 10

Why did civil rights campaigning shift to the Deep South after 1955

Answer 10

Very clear who was oppressor and oppressed
Many people saw nothing wrong with racism/violence against black Americans
- campaigners wanted to exploit this and expose these attitudes to government and rest of the world
Focused on schools that were still segregated despite Brown v. Board of Education
- schools targeted where NAACP had large following and local black communities had dedicated leaders/members
- families chosen carefully to apply to schools

Question 11

What happened at Little Rock, Arkansas

Answer 11

Arkansas had a racist governor, Orval Faubus but had desegregated buses in 1956
1957: 9 black children selected to attend previously all-white Central High School
- 4th September, Faubus sent state National guard to stop these children going in ‘for their safety’
- 8 children went in a car with the NAACP organiser
- Elizabeth Eckford went on her own, National Guard turned her away, surrounded by screaming mob, saying ‘lynch her’
- she bravely walked through them to the bus stop

Question 12

Effect of Little Rock

Answer 12

Over 250 reporters and photographers there, photographs shocked the world
King got a meeting with Eisenhower, pointed out political damage this was doing to his administration, urged federal intervention
- Eisenhower reluctantly sent in federal troops to guard children going to/from school and in corridors

Children subjected to taunts and violence and homes of local NAACP leaders firebombed several times
Central High School was integrated
- closed for following year by Faubus but eventually integrated for good

• happened in other schools/colleges across the south, many people killed in rioting that accompanied integration

Question 13

What was the Greensboro sit in

Answer 13

1 February 1960: 4 black students went to a Greensboro department store, bought some supplies, went to segregated lunch counter and waited to be served
- waited till it closed, came back next day joined by 30 students, after that nearly all the seats taken by black students
Media full of imaged of calm, well-dressed black students waiting to be served whilst white people yelled at them, blew smoke in their faces, poured food on them

Shop shut due to bomb scare but effect of sit-in was huge

Question 14

When was the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) set up

Answer 14

15 April 1960 in Raleigh, North Carolina

Question 15

What was the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Answer 15

Racially integrated organisation of young people
- believe in non-violent direct action
- students took training sessions in how to cope with abuse and violence from whites during demonstrations
Sent out field secretaries to live and work in dangerous parts of the south
- important role in encouraging voter registration, knew black people needed political power to get government attention

Took MLK’s ideas further, took non-violet protest into areas where there was likely to be violence

Question 16

Pushes for voter registration before 1955

Answer 16

1935 + 36: Atlanta, asked mayor for adequate street lighting in black areas
- he would provide it if people in those areas voted for him and vote the way he told them to in other elections

Question 17

What were the freedom rides

Answer 17

1961: CORE and the SNCC carried out series of freedom rides in the south
- organised by James farmer of CORE
- to test whether bus restroom facilities had been desegregated, as they should have been after 1961 Supreme Court ruling
Planned rides with intention of provoking crisis, publicity would affect the way the world looked at USA
- desperate measures like this were the only way to get government to enforce legislation, not just pass it

Question 18

Reaction to freedom rides

Answer 18

First two buses attacked
- riders, black and white, beaten up at several stops
Anniston, Alabama: one bus was firebombed after it was chased by 50 cars, some police
- riders all survived
- media coverage showed shocking levels of violence
Imprisoned in Birmingham and beaten up in Montgomery
- 3 killed

Question 19

Why were there campaigns in Birmingham

Answer 19

Nicknamed ‘bombingham’ for regularity that black homes, businesses and churches were firebombed

Question 20

What were the campaigns in Birmingham

Answer 20

1963: MLK and SCLC led push to desegregate the whole town
- MLK knew it would provoke violence but this worked
Began on 3 April
- protesters leaflets made specific references to American Dream
- tactic was to get arrested and fill the jails, by the end of the month, jails were full
- children trained in protest tactics

Question 21

Reaction to Birmingham

Answer 21

Racist chief of police, ‘Bull’ Connor, ordered men to use high-pressure fire hoses and dogs on them whilst they marched
- shocking pictures went worldwide
- Kennedy said he felt ashamed, sent in federal troops to restore calm on 12 May
- after that, it was desegregated

Question 22

Effect of Birmingham 1963

Answer 22

Significant factor in Kennedy pressing forward on civil rights legislation, as well as a poll after saying that 42% of people thought race was USA’s most pressing problem (only 4% in 1962)

Question 23

When was the March on Washington

Answer 23

August 1963

Question 24

Impact of March on Washington

Answer 24

Showed scale of civil rights activism
- king spoke, ‘I have a dream’ speech, famous
100,000s marched
Famous white singers like Joan Baez and Bob Dylan

Question 25

When was the Freedom Summer

Answer 25

1964

Question 26

What was the freedom summer

Answer 26

SNCC pushed for voter registration as it was an election year - sent large numbers of volunteers to the South - already had some volunteers, encouraged black people to register and train them to pass the voter registration tests, but was slow moving 45 volunteers sent to Mississippi: mostly, young, white and able to pay their own way/bail out of jail - teamed up with local organisations, most local volunteers were black

Question 27

Outcome of the freedom summer

Answer 27

20th June: first batch of students set out, next day, 3 disappeared (2 white, one black), found dead 6 weeks later By end of the summer, 3 more murders, 35 shooting incidents, countless beatings Around 17,000 black people tried to register to vote that year, only 1,600 accepted

Question 28

What sparked the black power movement

Answer 28

1965: Stokely Carmichael (leader of SNCC) set up the Lowndes County Freedom Organisation - in response to black feeling that, even if they had the vote, why would they vote for white southerners - used panther symbol and slogan ‘vote for the panther, then go home’

Question 29

Black power protests

Answer 29

June 1966: James Meredith (integrated University of Mississippi as students in 1962) led March Against Fear through Mississippi - shot on the second day - MLK took over, urging multiracial non-violent behaviour - Carmichael said non-violent protest wasn’t working, wanted SNCC and civil rights movement to radicalise and exclude white campaigners - slogan created of ‘Black Power!’ to replace traditional ‘Freedom!’, symbol of raised arm and clenched fist accompanied the new slogan, used in 1968 by black American athletes who won medals at the olympics

Question 30

When was the black panthers created

Answer 30

1966

Question 31

What did the black panthers do

Answer 31

Adopted panther symbol Worked in black communities, kept order, organised community projects such as free breakfasts for schoolchildren Ten point programme: - included decent housing and black history courses at university Wore uniform and carried guns - this attracted governments notice, not community work

Question 32

Effects of the black power movement

Answer 32

Radicalised many long-established civil rights groups in longer term, even NAACP Some that didn’t radicalise became more pragmatic, seeked local solutions - e.g. NAACP leader in Atlanta accepted slowing of segregation in 1973 in return for more control over black schooling - acceptance that white attitudes to integration meant generation of black children integrated in school but not getting an education

Question 33

How did the black power movement split

Answer 33

No more marches where all civil rights movements worked together Black power movement not coherent, many groups, different levels of radicalisation - some groups wanted serparation within USA or by leaving (Back to Africa movement) Black power students: pressed for more black staff and courses on black history Black power workers: set up radical trade unions to push for black jobs, equal pay, equal job opportunities

Question 34

What civil rights riots took place after 1955

Answer 34

1964: major riots in NYC, Chicago and Philadelphia - set off by instances of police brutality but long-term causes of problems of city life for black people Riots every summer up until 1971, tempers in overcrowded areas with poor facilities worst in summer

Question 35

Impact of the civil rights riots after 1955

Answer 35

Government intervention to calm violence seen as acceptable - violence by state police and guardsmen in early 1960s seen as excessive Media coverage of riots meant images of non-violent black people assaulted by whites was replaced by burning cities and young black man with a petrol bomb - Helped hasten civil rights legislation but brought white backlash, not helped when riot-torn areas were given federal government aid - e.g. 1965: Watts district of LA given $18 million after August riots

Question 36

When was the Northern crusade

Answer 36

1966

Question 37

What was the Northern Crusade

Answer 37

After 1964, MLK focused on the North - visited badly provided, overcrowded black ghettos Summer of 1966: 20 major riots in city slums all over USA - MLK announced northern crusade to improve slums by setting up tenant unions, improving working conditions, teaching young people about non-violent protest Began in Chicago and focused on Chicago - over 800,000 black Americans, mainly in ghettos (Mayor Daley denied ghettos existed in 1963)

Question 38

Outcome of northern crusade

Answer 38

MLK said it brought significant gains, others said it had been a failure because there was no permanent change Harder to get political support for social issues than segregation

Question 39

What did MLK do after the northern crusade

Answer 39

MLK’s relationship with media deteriorating - accused them of of trying to make non-violent campaigners make militant statements or they wouldn’t be reported 1967: took up issues of poverty in general - beginning to plan Poor People’s campaign with a march and camp in Washington (similar to Bonus March camps of 1932) As part of support for rights of poor workers, supported strike of Memphis sanitation workers in March 1968 - assassinated on 4th April 1968 whilst on this campaign

Question 40

Civil rights events 1955

Answer 40

25 November: segregation banned on all interstate buses all over USA

Question 41

Civil rights events 1956

Answer 41

February - March: Autherine Lucy becomes first black student to go to University of Mississippi - white riots so bad, she is expelled 12th March: 102 southern congressman sign southern manifesto - condemning Brown v. Board of Education

Question 42

Civil rights events 1962

Answer 42

30 September: James Meredith integrates University of Mississippi - only with the help of 3,000 federal troops and in the face of rioting

Question 43

Civil rights events 1963

Answer 43

11th June: governor of Alabama stops 2 black students desegregating the university - Kennedy takes over state troops to make it happen 12 June: Medgar Evers, leader of Mississippi NAACP, is shot 28th August: March on Washington is biggest civil rights protest up to that date - 200,000-500,000 involved 15th September: Black church Sunday school is bombed in Birmingham - 4 girls killed, 21st firebombing in 8 years

Question 44

Civil rights events 1964

Answer 44

2nd July: civil rights act passed - bans discrimination in voting, public services and work 10th December: MLK awarded Nobel peace prize

Question 45

Civil rights events 1965

Answer 45

January-February: civil rights voter registration in Selma, Montgomery - mass arrests - 18th February, campaigner shot by state trooper 7th March: Selma to Montgomery march in response to shooting - more arrests and violence, march finishes with federal troops escort

Question 46

Civil rights legislation 1957

Answer 46

29th august: civil rights act sets up civil rights commission - gives federal justice department more rights to supervise voter registration

Question 47

Civil rights legislation 1960

Answer 47

6th May: civil rights act makes it a crime to obstruct federal orders (e.g. school desegregation) by threat/force, authorises federal ‘referees’ for voting

Question 48

Civil rights legislation 1962

Answer 48

20th November: Kennedys executive order 1106 bans discrimination in allocation of federal housing

Question 49

Civil rights legislation 1964

Answer 49

2nd July: civil rights act bands discrimination for sex or race, in hiring, firing, and promoting - equal opportunities commission set up to enforce this

Question 50

Civil rights legislation 1965

Answer 50

6th August: voting rights act passed - bans attempts to stop people voting because of their race - provisions put in place for 5 years for federal enforcement of this - enforcement provisions have to be reconfirmed with extensions in 1970, 1975, 1982, 2007

Question 51

Civil rights legislation 1970

Answer 51

21st may: emergency school aid act gives funding to schools that are desegregating or struggling after desegregating - second of these acts 2 years later

Question 52

Civil rights legislation 1971

Answer 52

20th April: Swann v Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education - upholds policy of busing children out of poor areas to desegregated schools

Question 53

Civil rights legislation 1972

Answer 53

23rd June: education amendments act restricts busing by giving more money to inner-city schools for improvements

Question 54

Achievements of the civil rights movement

Answer 54

1917-80 black people were always full citizens - but by 1980 there was more pressure from federal government to make equality actually happen - e.g. since 1961: series of presidential executive orders to introduce ‘affirmative action’, giving preference to black interviewees for jobs in government and businesses Black American upper and middle class developed to significant extent - black upper classes in NYC/ Washington, modelled on white society - proof of equality (radicals thought they had sold out by trying to fit in - black professionals had access to work in higher levels of business, education, government, law - significant number of black politicians at local, state, and federal level Socio-economic improvement - scale of 7 for servant/day labourer to 75 - professional black American men went from average of 16 in 1940 to 21 in 1960 and 31 in 1980 - women went from 13 to 21 to 36 - black people featured more in TV/cinema, more of their book and magazines in shops - number of graduates increased, home ownership increased Voting - increased but slowed after 1968 - 1966: government census figures show 58.2% black Americans registered to vote, 1980: 60%

Question 54

Limitations to civil rights movement

Answer 54

Still not equal with white Americans - wealthiest were still made to feel unequal - passing of civil rights and voter registration acts made people feel it had been dealt with Affirmative action orders led to minority quota way of thinking Radicalisation and rioting made people less sympathetic to their rights MLK dying shifted focus, Vietnam war bigger issue Poor getting poorer, more falling below poverty line than in 1959 - schools still in poorest parts, some still segregated - poor living conditions Black babies more likely to die, schoolchildren more likely to drop out and less likely to succeed - gang culture begun to dominate ghettos of big cities, e.g. LA - crime rates higher - 1980: 75% of high school dropouts age 25-34 had criminal records