Blood Physiology Flashcards

Question

Cytokines

Answer 1

- regulate hematopoiesis - small secreted proteins - hormone-like as are released into blood and act on receptors on target cells - also called hematopoietins, or growth factors that influence development of blood cells

Answer 2

regulates production of RBCs

Answer 3

regulates production of platelets

Answer 4

- biconcave - function: transport of oxygen (and carbon dioxide) - lose nucleus and other organelles during development - contain many hemoglobin molecules - lifespan: 120 days

Answer 5

composed of heme (non-protein) portion and globin (protein) portion

Answer 6

- HbA or adult hemoglobin - single hemoglobin molecule has 4 globin chains (2 alpha and 2 beta chains), 4 heme groups and 4 divalent iron atoms (divalent; 2+) - each iron can bind a single oxygen; each hemoglobin can therefore bind 4 oxygen

Answer 7

hemoglobin

Answer 8

- relaxed binding structure of hemoglobin allows oxygen to bind in a cooperative manner, meaning the binding of successive oxygen molecules facilitates or helps the binding of the next oxygen

Answer 9

- is hemoglobin to which oxygen is bound; it has a relaxed binding structure

Answer 10

- has a tight binding structure and has given up oxygen

Answer 11

- the process by which a ferrous iron combines with one molecule of oxygen

Answer 12

- Hb can bind oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitric oxide and carbon monoxide - Hb has a higher affinity for carbon monoxide (200x higher) than for oxygen, meaning it prefers to bind carbon dioxide and does so very tightly, which makes it difficult to remove from the Hb - carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and has high affinity for Hb, making it fatal as Hb cannot bind oxygen and deliver it to the body

Answer 13

1. Cytokines- erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates RBC production 2. Dietary factors- iron needed in Hb, folic acid, and vitamin B12 3. Intrinsic factor- made by cells in the stomach and needed for absorption of vitamin B12

Answer 14

cytokine, stimulates RBC synthesis

Answer 15

decreased oxygen delivery to the kidneys

Answer 16

bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells

Answer 17

1. Decrease in tissue oxygenation 2. Stimulates release of EPO production from kidneys 3. Stimulates hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow 4. Increases production of RBC by bone marrow 5. Increases oxygen-carrying capacity of blood 6. Increase tissue oxygenation

Answer 18

- low oxygen concentration in the blood

Answer 19

- low blood volume - anemia - low hemoglobin - poor blood flow - pulmonary disease - basically, any factor that reduces the ability of blood to carry oxygen (low blood volume, anemia, low hemoglobin), that affects delivery of oxygen to tissues (low blood volume and flow) and affects ability to take in oxygen (pulmonary disease)

Answer 20

- needed for production of RBC - obtained from food and absorbed into blood in intestine - transported in blood bound to transferrin (iron transport protein) - used in bone marrow to make RBC

Answer 21

50% iron is from Hb from dying RBC 25% stored in other iron-containing proteins 25% stored in liver bound to ferritin (a protein)

Answer 22

phagocytosis

Answer 23

heme and globin

Answer 24

iron and biliverdin Iron- absorbed into blood for erythropoiesis or stored in spleen or liver bound to ferritin Biliverdin-> converted to bilirubin -> secreted into bile and enters small intestine

Answer 25

amino acids

Answer 26

- required for normal production of RBC - obtained from diet - absorption from GI tract requires intrinsic factor (a protein), secreted by cells in stomach wall - vitamin B12 and IF form a complex to allow vitamin B12 to be absorbed

Answer 27

due to lack of vitamin B12 or intrinsic factor

Answer 28

- decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood due to a deficiency of RBCs and/or hemoglobin contained in the RBCs - lack of iron - abnormal structure of hemoglobin

Answer 29

- damage of bone marrow due to radiation/drugs

Answer 30

- reduced level of erythropoietin (EPO)

Answer 31

- increased breakdown due to abnormal shape of RBC or due to immune reactions during transfusion

Answer 32

- increased blood loss due to injury, bleeding ulcers or chronic menstruation

Answer 33

HbA (2 alpha and 2 beta chains)

Answer 34

- have abnormal Hb called HbS - sickle-shaped RBC with hard, nonflexible cell membranes - RBC in sickle cell disease are damaged as they pass through capillaries and this leads to hemolytic anemia - an autosomal recessive disease (the gene for Hb S has to be inherited form both parents)

Answer 35

- refers to process that help a cell or the interior of our body defend against anything foreign- it protects our 'self' from our 'non-self'

Answer 36

1. Innate/natural immunity 2. Acquired/adaptive/specific immunity

Answer 37

- immunity we are born with - includes non-specific defenses in the body such as physico-chemical barriers, or physiological and chemical barriers of the body (skin, enzymes in body fluids, acid secretion in stomach, WBCs)

Answer 38

- acquired over time and upon exposure to foreign pathogens/cells - foreign object triggers the immunity to develop - WBC important

Answer 39

- produced from pluripotent stem cells in bone marrow - pluripotent cells converted to: granulocytes (neutrophils/eosinophils/basophils), monocytes or lymphocytes (B cells and T cells)

Answer 40

- production begins in bone marrow - migrate to thymus to complete development then return to blood - may migrate to peripheral tissues and are returned to circulation by lymphatic system

Answer 41

Key features: - Innate: non-specific, no memory, fast (sec/min/h) - Adaptive: specific, has memory, slow (days/weeks) Major cells involved: - Innate: phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages) - Adaptive: Lymphocytes (B and T cells) Major molecules involved: - Innate: complement system - Adaptive: antibodies, cytotoxic molecules

Answer 42

defense, remove old/damaged/abnormal cells

Answer 43

allergies, autoimmune reactions

Answer 44

- the non-specific innate immune response to tissue injury initiates inflammation; part of body's immune response

Answer 45

To cause healing and resolve injury, destruction of non-self agents and formation of scar tissue (fibrosis)

Answer 46

- redness -swelling - heat - pain - loss of function

Answer 47

- release of inflammatory mediators (histamine) - histamine causes vasodilation of blood vessels, which increases blood flow causing the redness and heat of inflammation - histamine causes blood vessels to become leaky or more permeable, allowing proteins and fluid to move to the extracellular space. The fluid causes the swelling of inflammation

Answer 48

1. Vascular events -refers to events involving blood vessels -release of histamine -local blood vessels dilate -local blood vessels become leaky -accumulation of protein and fluid in the extracellular space -inflammatory mediators are released: bradykinin, prostaglandins, complement proteins 2. Cellular events -refers to events associated with cells -resident macrophages entrap and kill pathogens, release chemical signals -increased movement of WBCs (neutrophils and monocytes) into infected area -phagocytosis and destruction of foreign agent

Answer 49

- cellular events of inflammation act to bring WBCs to the inflamed tissue and kill the "non-self" agent 1. Margination of WBCs- move to edge of blood vessels 2. Tethering and rolling of WBCs inside blood vessel -attaching of WBC to endothelial cells of the blood vessels and slow rolling along the vessel 3. Activation of WBCs and endothelial cells -involves expression of proteins on the surface of neutrophils and endothelial cells 4. Arrest/firm attachment of WBCs to endothelial cells -neutrophils bind to complementary proteins on endothelial cells and stop rolling 5. Emigration/ diapedesis -white blood cells squeeze in between adjacent endothelial cells to exit out of the blood vessel and move into the tissue spaces 6. Chemotaxis of WBCs - WBCs move toward the site of inflammation by chemotaxis, a process of cell movement that occurs in response to specific molecules or chemical attractants 7. Recognition of "non-self" by WBCs -at the site of infection, WBCs recognize foreign agents by recognizing chemical molecules on their surface 8. Phagocytosis of "non-self" pathogen by WBCs -process by which foreign pathogens or bacteria are engulfed by neutrophils

Answer 50

- the ability of WBCs to move against a concentration gradient (low -> high concentration) in response to chemical factors; they move towards the source of a chemotactic substance

Answer 51

chemical factors that attract WBCs to the site of inflammation

Answer 52

a cell that can eat other non-self pathogens or dying cells by engulfing them with temporary cytoplasm filled extension of the plasma membrane (pseudopodia) examples of phagocytic cells: monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and neutrophils

Answer 53

1. Recognition of substance to be ingested -macrophages have cell-surface receptors that recognize certain molecules on the surface of various pathogens 2. Attachment of phagocyte to the substance to be ingested -this activated the process of phagocytosis 3. Pseudopodia reach around substance and come together to form a phagosome inside the phagocytic cell 4. Fusion of the phagosome to a lysosome to form phagolysosome 5. Destruction of ingested substance by lysosomal enzymes 6. Release of end products into the cell or out of the cell by exocytosis

Answer 54

pattern recognition receptors, or toll-like receptors Receptors recognize a specific pattern of molecules expressed on bacteria, and therefore do not have to recognize a specific bacteria

Answer 55

- molecules added to the surface of a bacteria to help in speeding up the rate of phagocytosis by macrophages or other phagocytic cells - produced by self or host body - opsonins may eb antibodies or complement-type proteins

Answer 56

- coating of the bacteria with opsonins (either antibodies or complement-type proteins) produced by the host body which then facilitates the attachment and phagocytosis of the bacteria by the phagocytic cell

Answer 57

- important in immune response - kill bacteria by: oxygen-dependent process or oxygen-independent process

Answer 58

corrosive oxygen free radical products are synthesized to destroy a foreign body

Answer 59

use different bactericidal enzymes Lysozymes- enzymes which work inside phagolysosomes to degrade entire bacteria by proteolytic breakdown Lactoferrin- binds to iron and reduces iron in the environment so that bacteria cannot grow Defensins- drill holes on the surface of a bacteria

Answer 60

- found inactive in plasma - activated by a cascade or step-wise activation process which amplifies the signal - involved in the innate immune response

Answer 61

- Opsonization; activated complement proteins act as opsonins, which lead to potentiated phagocytosis - Inflammation mediator; activated complement proteins act as chemoattractants, attracting other immune cells to the site of inflammation, increasing vascular permeability and histamine release from mast cells - Lysis; complement proteins cause lysis of bacteria

Answer 62

- Activated complement proteins may kill a pathogen by forming a membrane attack complex or MAC - The activated complement proteins come together and form a pore on the surface of the bacteria -Involves complement proteins, therefore part of the innate immune response

Answer 63

Bone marrow

Answer 64

B lymphocytes

Answer 65

T lymphocytes

Answer 66

Blood circulation

Answer 67

Bone marrow and thymus These are sites where B and T lymphocytes are developed but they are not exposed to foreign pathogens or antigens

Answer 68

- B and T lymphocytes move to peripheral lymphoid tissues or nodes - This is where lymphocytes come in contact with foreign antigens and fully mature - Peripheral lymph nodes or tissues are called secondary lymphoid tissues - Activated lymphocytes can move back to the blood circulation through the lymphatic circulation

Answer 69

- Recognize a specific foreign antigen or agent - Respond to the antigen by mounting an immune response to bring about their destruction - Remember the first encounter with the antigen (important feature of acquired immunity)

Answer 70

Molecules that are specifically recognized by an antibody to form an antigen-antibody complex

Answer 71

- belongs to the globulin class of plasma proteins (Immunoglobulin class) - Y shaped molecule with two heavy chains and two light chains. The light and heavy chains are connected to each other by disulfide bridges - The site formed by the combination of light and heavy chains on both arms of the Y-shaped molecule forms the highly specific binding site of the antibody (ie. This is where the antigen binds)

Answer 72

- the aspect of immunity mediated by macromolecules such as secreted free-circulating antibodies found in the humors, or body fluids - developed when naive B cells in the lymph nodes are exposed to foreign antigens - B cell binds a complementary antigen and then undergoes mitosis, or clonal expansion

Answer 73

- In clonal expansion, all progeny carry the same antigen specificity - During antigen-specific clonal expansion, two groups of B cells are formed - Once group differentiates into short-lived plasma cells - Other group retains the specific receptor for the foreign antigen and circulates in the plasma as memory cells - The antibody-like molecules on he surface of the B cells act as a receptor to recognize a specific antigen

Answer 74

Synthesize antibodies specific to the foreign antigen that initiated the clonal expansion. The free antibody molecules contribute to humoral immunity and are known as free circulating antibodies

Answer 75

Long-lived cells which retain the memory of the first exposure for many years to come

Answer 76

- Direct effect of antibodies: antibodies can neutralize toxic molecules produced by bacteria - Indirect effect: involves use of the antibody as an opsonin or for the purpose of complement activation -Once complement proteins are activated, the effects of OIL could set in (Opsonization, inflammation mediator, and lysis)

Answer 77

- Cellular immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies, but rather activation of phagocytes, T cells and the release of various cytokines - Cellular immunity: -virus infections, cancer cells and transplanted organs -involves T cells: cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells and memory T cells - T cells perform the three R’s -recognize a specific foreign antigen -respond to a foreign antigen by generating a cellular immune response -remember the first encounter with a foreign antigen

Answer 78

T cells require the foreign antigen to be presented in a unique manner known as “antigen presentation”

Answer 79

- T cells require the foreign antigen to be presented in a unique manner - a process whereby a host cell, such as a macrophage or a dendritic cell, engulfs the foreign protein, or antigen and presents it to the T cell complexed with the host’s proteins - antigen is taken up by a macrophage and processed into smaller pieces by the macrophage’s enzymes. The small pieces of the foreign protein are then loaded on to a specific intracellular protein called MHC (major histocompatibility complex protein). The small pieces of the antigen are then presented on the surface of the antigen presenting cell to a naive T cell

Answer 80

- MHC I: found virtually all nucleated cells - MHC II: found specifically in antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells

Answer 81

- Following a cut or break in the skin, bacteria invade the host body and are transferred through blood or a lymphatic vessels into a lymph node 1. The bacterium can be be recognized specifically by B cells which then undergo clonal expansion to form plasma cells and memory B cells. The plasma cells can produce free circulating antibodies. These antibodies are specific to the foreign antigen. (B cells -> clonal expansion -> antibodies specific to the foreign antigen) 2. In the lymph node, a macrophage or dendritic cell can engulf the same bacterium, and present the foreign antigen to a helper T cell. The helper T cells can proliferate to become activated helper T cells. These activated T cells can produce cytokines which can interact with the B cells that undergo clonal expansion. (Macrophage -> antigen presentation -> activated T cells make cytokines which interact with the B cells)

Answer 82

During B cell-mediated development of immunity, T cells interact to provide help via production of cytokines

Answer 83

- antigen is injected and the host body produces antibody - immunological memory is an important feature of acquired immunity -The first or primary response -> slow to develop and the amount of antibody generated is not large -The host body remembers the first encounter to the antigen and if exposed to the same antigen again, the host responds in a fast and quick manner which is known as the secondary response -Secondary immune response -> antigen A is injected a second time and the magnitude of the response is large and very quick - this feature of memory is effectively used for vaccination purposes to provide immunity against diseases

Answer 84

- direct exposure to the antigen or exposure by vaccination - the antibodies are self-generated - the immunity is not immediate -days to weeks - duration of the immunity: months to years - combat future infection

Answer 85

- occurs when pre-formed antibodies are transferred from a mother to the fetus during pregnancy or by nursing in the postnatal stage - does not take time to acquire (immediate) - duration of the immunity: short-lived - provides help for the child until their own immune system is fully developed

Answer 86

- the prevention of blood loss - platelets are important in hemostasis = found in the middle "buffy coat" mixed with the white blood cells

Answer 87

- Pro-hemostatic factors prevent blood loss - Anti-hemostatic factors are factors which keep the blood fluid - Our body tries to maintain a state where blood can circulate smoothly, without formation of unnecessary clots

Answer 88

1. Vasoconstriction (vascular spasm) - A ruptured blood vessel contracts to minimize blood loss at the site of the cut 2. Primary hemostasis or platelet plug formation - Platelets aggregate to form a platelet plug or a white thrombus (it is known as white thrombus because platelets are colorless plugs) 3. Secondary hemostasis or blood clotting/coagulation (red thrombus) - If the bleeding does not stop after the formation of the white thrombus, blood clotting enzymes are activated to form a stronger gel-like clot at the cut site. This is known as red thrombus as it is reddish in color

Answer 89

- An injury stimulates pain receptors that activate nerve endings that are directly affected by the cuts, causing vasoconstriction - Injury to blood vessel smooth muscle, causing vasoconstriction - Local injury to the platelets causes the release of serotonin, which acts as a vasoconstrictor

Answer 90

blood clot

Answer 91

thrombocytes

Answer 92

- Platelets originate from the pluripotent stem cells of the bone marrow - Pluripotent stem cells are converted to cells called megakaryocytes

Answer 93

- Platelets contain organelles such as vesicles called alpha granules and dense granules. Do not contain a nucleus - Contain glycogen for energy - Contain contractile proteins actin and myosin - Contain surface glycoproteins which act as receptors - Contain canaliculi

Answer 94

Alpha granules contain large molecules: - Adhesive protein von Willebrand factor - growth factors - some blood clotting factors - cytokines

Answer 95

Dense granules contain small molecules - ADP - ATP - 5-hydroxyptamine (serotonin) - Calcium

Answer 96

1. Adhesion - platelets must adhere to a surface in the process of hemostasis - normally do not stick to the smooth surface of blood vessels but an injury to blood vessels disrupts the endothelial layer and exposes the underlying collagen - platelets adhere to the collagen tissue using von Willebrand factor 2. Activation of platelets: - binding of platelets to collagen triggers the release of chemicals from their storage granules (ADP and serotonin) - ADP and serotonin act locally on the platelets to change metabolism, shape, and expression of receptors on the surface of the platelet 3. Aggregation of platelets - new platelets to adhere to old ones by a positive feedback effect which rapidly forms a platelet plug inside the vessel

Answer 97

- is a protein secreted by platelets and endothelial cells - once secreted, von Willebrand factor can change conformation and bind to platelets - von Willebrand factor forms a bridge between the damaged vessel wall and the platelets

Answer 98

- The activated platelets express a fibrinogen receptor on their surface, which can bind to fibrinogen, a plasma protein, and other platelets to form a network, or lattice-like structure, which ultimately forms the plug. - During this process the activated platelets also secrete thromboxane A2 and ADP, which attract more platelets to the cut site, and the aggregation continues

Answer 99

- After the plug is formed, the plug can contract using its contractile proteins actin and myosin to tighten the plug and seal the cut site

Answer 100

- Serotonin (5HT) and ADP Serotonin acts a s a vasoconstrictor ADP plays a role in further platelet aggregation - Thromboxane A2: promotes further platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction of the vascular smooth muscle which will reduce blood flow to the cut site - Upon platelet activation, phospholipids exposed on the surface of the platelet aid in the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, which acts to promote further platelet aggregation

Answer 101

Adjacent undamaged endothelial cells synthesize and release prostacyclin, and nitric oxide which inhibit the spread of the platelet plug along undamaged endothelium

Answer 102

inhibits platelet aggregation

Answer 103

inhibits platelet adhesion, activation and aggregation

Answer 104

blood vessel wall

Answer 105

arachidonic acid

Answer 106

Arachidonic acid is converted to leukotrienes by the enzyme lipoxygenase, and these chemicals then initiate inflammatory responses of swelling

Answer 107

- Arachidonic acid is converted to a prostaglandin by an enzyme known as cyclooxygenase or COX - Platelets and endothelial cells both have the cyclooxygenase enzyme, but they have different isoforms, or variants, of the enzyme. As a result, the hemostatic responses will vary. The prostaglandins play a role in hemostatic effects that help to prevent blood loss

Answer 108

hemostatic effects

Answer 109

- is prescribed to prevent clot formation in patients that have a potential risk for heart attacks - can inhibit the actions of both COX-1 and COX-2

Answer 110

COX 1 and COX 2

Answer 111

COX 2 enzyme

Answer 112

- results in the synthesis of prostacyclin and this has an anti-hemostatic effect. - The prostacyclin synthesized from arachidonic acid keeps the plug from expanding to adjacent undamaged endothelial cells

Answer 113

COX 1 enzyme

Answer 114

- produces thromboxane A2 and has a pro-hemostatic effect, or favors the formation of a platelet plug

Answer 115

- the chances of producing thromboxane A2 are completely blocked. - platelets are non-nucleated cells and once their enzyme is inhibited, the actions of COX 1 enzyme are completely blocked, as they cannot synthesize new COX 1 enzyme

Answer 116

- healthy endothelial cells will eventually start synthesizing new COX-2 enzymes as they are nucleated. - COX 2 enzymes then convert arachidonic acid to prostacyclin

Answer 117

COX 1 COX 2

Answer 118

may have an increased risk of heart attacks to prevent clot formation

Answer 119

- a process by which blood is transformed into a solid gel called a clot, or thrombus, and consists of a protein called fibrin.

Answer 120

- occurs following a platelet plug formation - involves a cascade of enzyme (clotting factors) activation - activation of enzymes occur by proteolytic cleavage - formation of gel-like fibrin clot, in which red blood cells become trapped and is called a red thrombus

Answer 121

- is ionized calcium (is not a protein)

Answer 122

- Factor I =fibrinogen - Factor II =prothrombin - Factor III =tissue thromboplastin - Factor IV =calcium

Answer 123

Generation of the active thrombin enzyme

Answer 124

prothrombinase complex

Answer 125

- the active enzyme which converts the inactive protein fibrinogen to the active form fibrin

Answer 126

- is an insoluble protein which upon stabilization becomes strong strands and forms a mesh-work, or the fibrin clot, in which cells get trapped

Answer 127

- is directly involved in the formation of active thrombin

Answer 128

1. Intrinsic pathway- all factors come from within the blood and the blood vessel itself 2. Extrinsic pathway- is initiated by some factors outside the blood vessel Both pathways meet and activate the common factor in the common pathway leading to the formation of a blood clot

Answer 129

active factor X active thrombin

Answer 130

Intrinsic pathway

Answer 131

Extrinsic pathway

Answer 132

factor XII XIIa

Answer 133

contact activation factor

Answer 134

factor XII

Answer 135

- It is activated when factor VII come sin contact with tissue products and tissue factors outside a blood vessel

Answer 136

- Tissue factors are located on the outer plasma membrane of various tissue cells or cells in the walls of blood vessels outside the endothelium. The blood is exposed to these subendothelial cells when the vessel is damaged and the endothelial lining is disrupted

Answer 137

VII VIIa X activated factor X or factor Xa

Answer 138

- leads to the common pathway of fibrin formation

Answer 139

1. Clotting is initiated in the extrinsic pathway when factor VII is activated in the presence of tissue factors which are exposed when a cut occurs and are found immediately outside the cut site 2. Factor VIIa then produces a small amount of active factor Xa, which activates a small amount of fibrin. The amount of thrombin produced form the extrinsic pathway is too small to produce adequate sustained coagulation 3. This initial amount of thrombin provides a powerful feedback effect to many of the factors of the intrinsic pathway , including factors V, VIII and XI and factor XIII. This positive feedback effect of thrombin initiates the further formation of thrombin, thereby stimulating its own formation. This activated intrinsic pathway produces a large amount of thrombin, and produces a large fibrin clot.

Answer 140

serious bleeding

Answer 141

severe bleeding and are known as hemophiliacs

Answer 142

moderate bleeding

Answer 143

no bleeding problem in vivo, but blood doe snot clot in the glass test tube in vitro Clotting is not initiated by factor XII

Answer 144

anticoagulant - When the blood touches the glass, factor XII is activated and initiates clot formation in the glass test tube - When the glass is coated by silicon, the surface of the glass becomes too smooth to trigger the activation of factor XII. hence factor XII does not initiate the intrinsic pathway

Answer 145

- activation of platelets - converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin - activates several other clotting factors, including factor V, VIII, XI and XIII - plays a role in anti-clotting pathways (anti-coagulant activity)

Answer 146

prevent clot formation where and when it is not required

Answer 147

the enzymatic breakdown of the fibrin in blood clots

Answer 148

- TFPI or tissue factory pathway inhibitor - Antithrombin 3 - Thrombomodulin

Answer 149

- inhibits tissue factor, or factor III, that is involved in the activation of factor VII

Answer 150

- initiates the extrinsic pathway of clotting as it is needed to activate factor VII, which activates factor X

Answer 151

inhibits the actions of thrombin

Answer 152

- a protein expressed on the surface of undamaged, healthy endothelial cells - binds to thrombin to prevent formation of a clot

Answer 153

protein C, protein C Protein C then interacts with protein S, and they inhibit factors Va and factor VIIIa

Answer 154

- involved in the formation of thrombin

Answer 155

- closely involved in the formation of factor Xa

Answer 156

Healthy endothelial cells express thrombomodulin - Thrombomodulin binds to thrombin and activates protein C - Activated protein C inhibits factors VIIIa and Va

Answer 157

sodium citrate

Answer 158

antithrombin 3

Answer 159

Factors II, VII, IX and X

Answer 160

tPA, or tissue plasminogen activator

Answer 161

healthy endothelial cells

Answer 162

- used to treat patients with heart attacks to dissolve clots - thrombolytics work by dissolving a major clot quickly to restart blood flow to the heart and helps prevent damage to the heart muscle

Answer 163

PRO- and ANTI-hemostatic factors

Answer 164

- severe bleeding disorders which lead to hemorrhage may occur - defects in pro-hemostatic pathways

Answer 165

problems with the platelets: - Thrombocytopenia- a deficiency in the numbers of platelets - Abnormal platelet function due to a deficiency of von Willebrand's factor (the plasma protein secreted by endothelial cells and platelets that promotes adhesion by binding to platelets and exposed collagen molecules in damaged blood vessels) problems with clotting factors - hereditary deficiencies of clotting factors - a number of clotting factors require vitamin K for their synthesis and a lack of vitamin K may cause a deficiencies of these factors

Answer 166

- blood clots remain in the circulation for a long time leading to thrombosis (formation of blood clot in the vessel, blocking blood flow) - deficiencies of natural anticoagulants and fibrinolytic factors due to hereditary disorders may cause thrombosis - acquired disorders, such as decreased blood flow, may also lead to the formation of blood clots

Answer 167

the antigens carried on the surface of red blood cells

Answer 168

Group A, B, AB and O

Answer 169

carbohydrate

Answer 170

has antigen type A on the surface of the red blood cells anti-B antibodies

Answer 171

has antigen B on the surface of the red blood cells anti-A antibodies

Answer 172

has both antigens A and B on the surface of the red blood cells no anti-A or anti-B antibodies

Answer 173

has no surface antigens of the ABO type on the surface of the red blood cells both anti-A and anti-B antibodies

Answer 174

antigens, antibodies

Answer 175

carbohydrates

Answer 176

Gene A instead codes for the specific enzyme A that allows the attachment of the carbohydrate antigen A to protein molecules expressed on the surface of red blood cells

Answer 177

Blood type is determined by which antigens are present

Answer 178

- Red blood cells of blood type A will clump when anti-A antibody is added, as they have the surface antigen A, but will not clump when anti-B antibody is added, as there are no surface antigens B present with blood type A. - Anti-B antibodies will clump cells of blood type B, as the surface antigen B is present but there will be no clumping when anti-A antibodies are added - With blood type AB, clumping will be observed when either anti-A antibodies or anti-B antibodies are added, as both the surface antigen A and B are present on the red blood cells - With blood type O, no clumping will be observed when either anti-A or anti-B antibodies are added, as there are no surface antigens

Answer 179

a process in which the surface antigens on the red blood cells are bound to antibodies to form a clump followed by hemolysis, or the rupture or destruction of the red blood cells

Answer 180

Blood donors and recipients must be matched before blood is transfused

Answer 181

agglutination of red blood cells and hemolysis

Answer 182

Major cross match

Answer 183

Minor cross match

Answer 184

red blood cell antigens match with the recipients blood type

Answer 185

Blood type O - a donor of blood type O can donate blood to recipients with blood type A, B and AB in emergency situations - donors of blood type O do not possess any red blood cell antigens that can cause clumping by reacting with a recipient's plasma antibodies

Answer 186

all other ABO blood types - Recipients of blood type AB do not possess any plasma antibodies that can cause clumping of the donor's red blood cell antigens

Answer 187

A transfusion reaction characterized by agglutination, or clumping of the red blood cells, and hemolysis (rupture of red blood cells) occurs

Answer 188

Rh positive and Rh negative

Answer 189

Rhesus blood type

Answer 190

Rhesus D positive (Rh+)

Answer 191

recessive (dd)

Answer 192

surface of the red blood cells plasma

Answer 193

When an Rh- person develops anti-D antibodies when they are accidentally exposed to D antigens during a blood transfusion or during pregnancy, in the case of an Rh- woman. Anti-D antibodies are formed in the same manner by which our immune system reacts to exposure to a foreign bacterial antigen in developing antibodies.

Answer 194

IgG, immunoglobin G

Answer 195

- Rh- person with no anti-D antibodies is exposed accidentally to Rh+ blood during transfusion - Rh- person develops anti-D antibodies - Then the same Rh- person is exposed by mistake to another transfusion of Rh+ blood - Anti-D antibodies will bind to Rh+ RBC and cause clumping and hemolysis

Answer 196

Rh- - During the first pregnancy the mother's body is not exposed to baby's Rh antigen as the baby grows; baby is healthy - During delivery rupture of placental blood vessels causes some of the fetal Rh+ red blood cells to accidentally enter the maternal blood; this exposes the baby's Rh+ blood to the mother's immune system - The mother is sensitized to the Rh antigen and produces anti-D or anti-RH antibodies

Answer 197

- Circulating anti-D antibodies in the mother's blood will pass through the placenta into the baby's body and bind to the baby's red blood cells to cause rupture and hemolysis - The baby is born with hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN); HDN babies are born with high levels of ruptured red blood cells with enlarged spleens and jaundice due to breakdown of hemoglobin

Answer 198

This condition is prevented by treating the mother immediately after her first delivery with anti-Rh antibodies which will bind to all the red blood cells form the Rh+ newly delivered baby that have escaped into the mother's body and are circulating in the mother's blood; the baby's red blood cells carrying D antigens are bound and blocked by anti-D antibodies and are not exposed to the mother's immune system to sensitize her.

Blood Physiology Flashcards

(241 cards)