Body Logistics Flashcards
(288 cards)
1
Q
What does homeostasis mean?
A
Homeo-same
Stasis-standing still
2
Q
What type of equilibrium is homeostasis?
A
Dynamic equilibrium
3
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
Maintaining a constant internal environment
4
Q
What needs to be maintained in homeostasis?
A
Conc. of O2, CO2, salt, electrolytes Conc. of nutrients, waste products pH Temperature Volume/Pressure of body fluid compartments
5
Q
Which technique does the body use to maintain homeostasis?
A
Feedback loops (positive and negative)
6
Q
What is positive feedback?
A
A substance stimulates another substance, which in turn stimulates the fist substance. Amplification of an effect.
7
Q
What is negative feedback?
A
Returning levels back to normal. One substance will inhibit another.
8
Q
What are the types of glands?
A
Endocrine and exocrine.
9
Q
What does an endocrine gland do?
A
Produce and secrete hormones into the blood.
10
Q
What does an exocrine gland do?
A
Produce and secrete chemicals through ducts onto an epithelial surface e.g. Skin.
11
Q
Examples of glands
A
Hypothalamus Adrenal Pituitary Parathyroid Thyroid Pancreas Gonads Thymus
12
Q
What are the requirements for light microscopy?
A
Preserve tissue -e.g. In formalin
Embed tissue in substance that allows it to be sliced very thinly -e.g. In paraffin
Stain tissue so you can see cell components -e.g. Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E)
13
Q
How do Haematoxylin and Eosin stain samples?
A
H stains nucleus blue most strongly
E stains cytoplasm and extracellular matrix pink most strongly
14
Q
What are the advantages/disadvantages of frozen section?
A
Adv- quicker (10mins vs. 16hrs)
Dis- lower technical quality
15
Q
What is polarised light?
A
Light travelling in one direction
16
Q
How many nanolitres in a microlitre?
A
1000
17
Q
How many microlitres in a millilitre?
A
1000
18
Q
How many decilitres in a litre?
A
10
19
Q
What mass do you take to be the mass of a human?
A
70kg
20
Q
How much of the human body by % is water?
A
60% (42L in 70kg person)
21
Q
How much water is extracellular/intracellular?
A
1/3 is extracellular (14L in 70kg person)
2/3 is intracellular (28L in 70kg person)
22
Q
Of the extracellular fluid in a 70kg person how much is interstitial and how much is in the blood?
A
Interstitial- 11L
Blood- 3L
23
Q
What is haematocrit?
A
Proportion by volume of circulating blood that is red blood cells (40%)
24
Q
What is the circulating blood volume?
A
5L-3L plasma, 2L RBC
25
What is the normal haematocrit?
40%
26
How often does the total blood volume circulate?
Once per minute
27
What do macrophages do?
Recognise foreign antigens and take them into the macrophage. It then breaks it down using lysosomal enzymes and gets rid of the debris. It often presents part of the antigen on the surface.
28
What do B lymphocytes do?
Naïve B cells sense the shape of a foreign antigen and produce antibodies with a complementary variable site to that antigen. Also B memory cells are produced, so that if the same antigen is found again an immune response can occur more quickly.
29
Where are B lymphocytes made?
Bone marrow
30
What type of response are B lymphocytes and macrophages part of?
Humoral
31
Where are T lymphocytes made?
Bone marrow, and mature in thymus
32
What do T lymphocytes do?
They create killer T lymphocytes which then dock next to cells infected with virus (or cancer cells) and kill them. Memory T lymphocytes are also made.
33
What type of response are T lymphocytes part of?
Cell mediated
34
What do T helper cells do?
They sense the shape of the foreign antigen displayed by a macrophage (and become activated). It then tells this shape to the B cells and activates macrophages. It also activates killer T lymphocytes.
35
What are monoclonal antibodies?
Antibodies that all originate from the same cell (hybridoma).
36
What is a hybridoma?
Fusion of B cell and myeloma (cancer cell)
37
What are some properties of hybridomas?
Immortal
| Highly specific
38
What is an epitope?
A binding site found on antigens
39
What do antibodies do?
Bind to complementary antigens which stops them entering cells and stops them growing. It also groups them in one place so they can easily be killed by macrophages.
40
What is a conjugated antibody?
An antibody with a radioactive marker attached
41
How does autoradiography work?
A radioactive marker is injected into a live animal/cell culture
A histological section is coated with a photographic emulsion which shows molecules labelled with the radioactive marker
42
What is the typical magnification in light microscopy?
x1000
43
What is the distance between resolvable points in light microscopy?
0.2 micrometers
44
How does ultrasound work?
The transducer contains piezoelectric crystals which vibrate when an electric signal is applied which produces ultrasound waves. The ultrasound waves pass through the skin and into the internal anatomy. As the waves encounter tissues with different characteristics and densities they produce echoes which reflect back to the transducer. The piezoelectric crystals then produce an electrical signal which a computer converts into points of brightness on an image.
45
If an ultrasound wave has high frequency what qualities does it have?
Short wavelength
Good resolution
Travels quickly
46
Why does an electron microscope have a higher resolution than a light microscope?
Because it has a shorter wavelength
47
What is the typical magnification of an electron microscope?
x250,000
48
How does a transmission electron microscope work?
Only works in a vacuum (all samples are dead).
An electron beam passes through the sample and any beams that pass through are detected. Where beams pass through the sample this part of the image will be bright, where they don't it will be dark.
49
What is freeze fracture EM?
Tissue is frozen to -160 degrees C and fractured by hitting with a knife edge. The fracture line passes through the plasma membrane exposing its interior which can then be imaged (in vacuum with EM)
50
How does a scanning electron microscope work?
Only works in a vacuum (dead sample). Electron beams are fired at the sample. They then reflect back from the surface and are received by a cathode ray tube.
51
What was MRI adapted from?
NMR
52
What is the function of an epithelial cell?
Separating the inside from the outside of the body and separating different environments of the body.
53
What are cell junctions?
They are found between adjacent epithelial cells and ensure the cells are tightly adhered to one another.
54
What are the 3 main types of cell junctions?
Tight junctions-firmly adhere adjacent cells to one another.
Desmosomes-strengthen the tight junctions and are resistant to stretching and twisting.
Gap junctions (communication junctions)-allow adjacent cells to talk to each other.
55
How are tight junctions made and what is their function?
The plasmalemma of adjacent epithelial cells are fused together. It forms a seal which stops molecules passing between the cells, so it must go through the epithelial cells.
56
How are desmosomes made and what is their function?
They are found just under or next to tight junctions. They strengthen the bond between cells. They are formed by proteins which are interlocked and connect the cells.
57
How are gap junctions made and what is their function?
They are found between adjacent cells and allow them to communicate with each other and coordinate functions. Proteins called connexons form small channels that allow ions and small molecules to move back and forth between cells. They allow messages to pass between cells.
58
What is the basement membrane?
It is the structural site for overlying cells and underlying connective tissue. It anchors down the epithelium to its loose connective tissue underneath.
59
How can cells attach to the basement membrane?
Hemidesmosomes:integrins connect the plasma membrane to the basement membrane. (Found in tissues subject to abrasion).
Focal adhesions: anchor intracellular actin filaments to the basement membrane. Integrins attach the actin filament complex through the cell membrane to the extracellular matrix. (Important in call movement e.g. Migration of epithelial cells in wound repair).
60
What are integrins?
They are transmembrane proteins that attach the cell cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix and sense whether adhesion has occurred.
61
What are the 2 main functions of integrins?
Attachment of the cell to the ECM.
Signal transduction from the ECM to the cell.
(Also involved in immune patrolling and cell migration).
62
What is required for cell cultures to survive?
Provide nutrients, control pH, temperature and oxygen. Prevent bacterial contamination
63
How do you separate cells from tissues?
Use collagenase or microdissection. They can they be cultured in Petri dishes.
64
What are you the drawbacks of cultured cells?
They behave and look different to cells in tissues.
They demonstrate contact inhibition (when touch each other they stop growing).
Have a limited life span due to senescence.
65
What are the methods by which cells can die?
Necrosis and apoptosis
66
What is necrosis?
Caused by physical disruption to the cell by injury/bacterial toxins/nutritional deprivation. The cell loses functional control and osmotic pressure causes swelling in organelles, the chromatin clumps and the cell bursts. Cytotoxic cellular components spill out from the membrane and cause tissue damage and inflammation.
67
What is apoptosis?
Programmed cell death. Proteins inhibit and induce apoptosis. When apoptosis is induced catabolic processes begin throughout the cell. Enzymes digest cytostolic components and fragments of nuclear DNA. Capsases (protease) target proteins in nuclear laminar and cytoskeleton. Cell is repackaged for safe removal: chromatin condenses, cell shrinks and fragments into small apoptotic bodies. It is then phagocytised by adjoining cells.
68
What is endocytosis?
Bulk transport into the cell.
The cell membrane folds into a pouch surrounding the particles outside the cell. A vesicles is formed and carries the particles into the cell where they can be released.
69
What is phagocytosis?
A type of endocytosis. WBC engulf bacteria and unwanted cells and form a vesicle. This vesicle fuses with a lysosome which contains digestive enzymes which destroy the bacteria/unwanted cells.
70
What is exocytosis?
Bulk transport out of the cell.
A vesicle containing waste or cells products moves toward the cell membrane. The membrane around the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane. The contents of the vesicle are secreted as the membrane smooths out.
71
How often do cells in the body renew?
It depends. Some cells are static (CNS, cardiac and skeletal muscle cells)/stable (fibroblasts, endothelium, smooth muscle cells)/renewing (blood, skin epithelium, gut epithelium).
72
What are the two main types of organisms?
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes (endosymbiosis. mitochondrion/chloroplast engulfed by them).
73
What are the 4 basic types of tissues?
Epithelial
Muscle
Nerve
Connective
74
What are the different specialised connective tissues?
```
Adipose
Lymphatic
Blood
Haemopoietic
Cartilage
Bone
```
75
What parts of the body are epithelium?
Covers exterior body surface
Lines internal closed cavities and body tubes that communicate with the exterior
Forms secretory portion of glands and lines their ducts
Specialised- receptors for special senses
76
What are the epithelial cell domains?
Apical domain- attach to nothin
Lateral domain- attach to each other
Basal domain- attache to basement membrane
77
Do epithelial cells exhibit polarity?
Yes
78
What specialisations can be on the apical domain?
Microvilli
Stereovilli
Cilia
79
What are microvilli?
Cytoplasmic processes that extend from the cell surface.
80
What are stereovilli
Particularly long microvilli e.g. In ear
81
What are cilia?
Motile cytoplasmic processes that beat in synchrony with a rapid forward movement (effective stroke) and a slower return movement (recovery stroke).
82
Why do necrotic cells swell and burst?
Failure of action of Na K ATPase (sodium potassium pump)
| Which moves 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in using ATP for energy
83
What is osmosis?
The net movement of water molecules from a high water potential to a low water potential through a selectively permeable membrane.
84
What is osmolarity?
Amount of solute/protein in water.
Concentration of a solution expressed as the number of solute particles per kg of solution. mOsm/kg
Usually 300mOsm/kg in plasma.
85
What is oncotic pressure?
Amount of protein in water
86
What is the electrical difference between the inside and outside of the cell membrane?
Membrane potential (-70mV)
87
Sodium and potassium in plasma vs. Intracellular
High sodium in plasma
| High potassium in intracellular
88
What can happen if the stomach loses mucus?
Gastric ulceration and perforation.
89
What is pH?
pH= -log [H+]
90
What does a one unit change in the pH scale mean?
A ten fold change in the normal scale
91
What can cause abnormal plasma pH?
Major organ dysfunction e.g. Lungs/kidney/liver
| Shock-poor tissue perfusion
92
What is shock?
A state of globally cellular and tissue hypoxia due to reduced oxygen delivery, usually due to hypoperfusion.
93
What are the types of shock?
Cardiogenic, hypovolaemic, septic shock
94
What happens when tissues are poorly perfused?
Anaerobic respiration leads to lactic acid production and lactic acidosis which impairs cardiac function.
95
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Connects cells to form tissues, tissues to form organs and organs to form the body. Can also provide support.
Transportation- provide a medium for diffusion of nutrients and wastes
Protection- provide a cushion between tissues and organs and provides insulation.
Storage (adipose tissue)
Defence against infection
Wound healing
96
What is the bulk of connective tissue made up of?
Extracellular material (matrix)
97
What are the 3 types of connective tissue?
CT proper e.g. loose/dense
Specialised CT e.g. blood/lymph
Supporting CT e.g. bone/cartilage/bone marrow
98
What is connective tissue made up of?
Ground substance
Fibres
Specialised Cells
(Cells make fibres and ground substance
Matrix=fibres and ground substance)
99
Does connective tissue or epithelial tissue have an abundant blood supply?
Connective tissue
100
What are the types of CT proper?
Loose and dense CT
101
What do loose and dense CT do?
Fill the space between organs and keep them in tact.
102
What is the most abundant type of CT?
Loose CT
103
What does loose CT contain?
Reticular, collagen and elastic fibres
Viscous Ground substance
Fixed cells e.g. fibroblast responsible for general maintenance of tissue
Wandering cells e.g. defence cells responsible for defending and repairing damaged tissue
104
Types of cells and what they do (loose CT)
Fixed:
Melanocytes-produce melanin
Macrophages-immune cells
Mast cells-stimulate local inflammation by releasing histamines
Fibroblasts-produce extracellular fibres
Adipocytes-store fatty reserves
Mesenchymal- stem cells responsible for repair of tissue
```
Wandering:
Plasma cells
Wandering macrophages
Leucocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
```
105
What fibres are in loose CT?
Reticular
Collagen
Elastic
106
What do reticular fibres do?
They form branching networks which protect the organs.
107
What do collagen fibres do?
They provide resilience and strength
108
What do elastic fibres do?
They can recoil after stretching
109
What are the 3 types of loose CT?
Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
110
Where do you find areolar tissue?
Beneath all epithelial layers
111
What cell types does areolar tissue contain?
All cell types previously mentioned
112
What are the characteristics of adipose tissue and where is it found?
It has limited extracellular space and lots of adipocytes which form a cushion around delicate organs. Also found under skin for insulation and protection.
113
Which fibre dominates reticular CT and what does it do?
Reticular fibres dominate to form tough flexible scaffolds for delicate structures e.g. glands
114
How does dense CT differ from loose CT?
More fibres
Less ground substance
Fewer cells (fibroblast is main cell)
115
What are the 3 types of dense CT?
Dense regular- collagen fibres in parallel bundles
Dense irregular- collagen fibres in haphazard direction
Elastic- more elastic than collagen fibres
116
Where is dense regular CT found?
Tendons and ligaments
117
How many directions can dense regular CT resist stress?
One
118
Where is dense irregular CT found?
Dermis of the skin
| Sheets surrounding organs (fascia)
119
How many directions can dense irregular CT resist stress?
Many directions
120
Where is elastic CT found?
Between the spinal vertebrae
121
What are the connective sheets called?
Fascia
122
What do fascia do?
Support and compartmentalise parts of the body
| Hold muscle bundles together
123
What is ground substance?
A viscous, clear substance with a high water content. It is composed of proteoglycans.
124
What is a proteoglcan?
A large macromolecule which is made up of a core protein to which glycosaminoglycans are covalently bonded to
125
What are glycosaminoglycans and what do they do?
Long chained polysaccharides
| They attract water to form a hydrated gel that permits rapid diffusion and resists compression
126
What is different about the ground substance of cartilage?
The proteoglycans are connected to hyaluronic acid by a linker protein
127
Where is loose CT located?
Beneath epithelial- to facilitate diffusion
Associated with epithelium of glands
Located around small blood vessels
128
What is aponeurosis?
A flat sheet of regular CT with bundles of fibres in one layer often arranged at 90 degrees to those in adjacent layers.
129
How are the collagen fibres in ligaments arranged?
Densely packed in a parallel arrangement but the undulate and are arranged in fascicles separated by loose CT.
130
What do fibroblasts do?
Synthesise and secrete ground substance and fibres
| Important in wound healing and wound contraction.
131
What is in the granules that mast cells contain?
Histamine
Heparin
Substances that attract eosinophils and neutrophils
132
What are the main types of collagen?
Type 1
| Type 3- makes reticulin
133
What is the structure of type 1 collagen?
Triple alpha helix
134
How is collagen made?
Fibroblasts secrete procollagen which Is converted to collagen outside the cell. They are the. Aggregated to form collagen fibrils. These can then be grouped together to form collagen fibres.
135
What are the types of fat cells?
White and brown.
| Most is white
136
Where is the nucleus found in white adipocytes?
The periphery
137
What do brown adipocytes contain?
Many lipid droplets and a central nucleus
138
Why are brown adipocytes brown?
Abundant vascular supply al they ha e a high respiratory capacity for the generation of heat so non-shivering thermogenesis can occur.
139
What is the anatomical position?
Face forward with eyes and toes pointing in same direction.
Arms by sides palms facing forward.
Lower limbs close together with feet parallel to each other.
140
What does superior and inferior mean?
Superior=above
| Inferior=below
141
What does anterior and posterior mean?
Anterior=in front
| Posterior=behind
142
What is the coronal plane?
Slice parallel to face
143
What is the sagittal plane?
Slice through face
144
What is the transverse plane?
Slice parallel to ground
145
What does superficial mean?
Nearer to surface
146
What does intermediate mean?
Between a superficial and deep structure
147
What does deep mean?
Further from surface
148
What do palmar and dorsal mean?
Palmar- palm/sole surface
| Dorsal- back of hand/top of foot
149
What does proximal mean?
Nearer to trunk or point of origin
150
What does distal mean?
Further from trunk or point of origin
151
What do ipsilateral and contralateral mean?
Ipsilateral-on same side
| Contralateral-on opposite sides
152
What plane do flexion and extension occur in?
Sagittal plane
153
What are flexion and Extension?
Flexion- make angle smaller
| Extension-make angle bigger
154
What are abduction and adduction?
Abduction takes structures away from midline whereas adduction brings structures back towards the midline.
155
What is circumduction?
A circular movement
156
What is supination and pronation?
Supination is turning palm up and pronation is turning palm down
157
What are opposition and reposition?
Opposition is when you bring the thumb and pinky towards each other. Reposition is when you move them away from each other.
158
What are dorsiflexion and plantarflexion?
Dorsiflexion is rotating ankle up, plantarflexion is rotating ankle down.
159
What are eversion and inversion?
Eversion is rotating ankle out and inversion is rotating ankle in
160
Which systems does the lymphatic system support?
Cardiovascular and immune systems
161
What are the main parts of the lymphatic system?
```
Lymph
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Lymphoid organs
Lymph ducts
```
162
What is lymph?
Watery fluid that flows through lymphatic system. Mostly originally blood plasma.
163
What do lymphatic vessels do?
Help reabsorb fluid
164
What do lymph nodes do?
They are checkpoints that monitor and cleanse lymph
165
What are some examples of lymphoid organs?
Tonsils
Adenoids
Thymus
Spleen
166
Why is lymph fluid formed?
Not all the plasma which is forced out of the capillaries returns to the capillaries so it is instead picked up by lymphatic capillaries.
167
What is the structure of lymphatic capillaries?
Loosely overlapping endothelial cells which form flaplike minivalves that open when the pressure in the interstitial space is higher than the pressure in the lymphatic capillary.
168
What are lymph ducts?
Feed lymph back into the lowest pressure areas of the circulatory system.
169
What lymph does the right lymphatic duct drain and what into what?
Upper right area of torso, right arm and right half of head into the internal jugular vein
170
How do lymphatic vessels work?
Like veins.
Valves to prevent back flow.
Low pressure.
Helped by smooth muscle contraction in vessel walls and skeletal muscle movement-larger lymphatics
Pressure changes in thorax during breathing.
171
What WBC are found in lymph nodes?
B cells
Macrophages
T cells
(Neutophils)
172
What can lymphocytes in the lymph nodes do?
Release macrophages
| Activate general immune response
173
Where do lymphocytes mature?
Loose reticular CT which makes up a large part of nodes and lymphoid organs
174
What do MALTs do?
Checkpoint for GI tract and respiratory system for pathogens
175
Examples of MALTs?
Tonsils
Peyer's patches in small intestine
Appendix
176
How many litres of interstitial fluid per day does the lymphatic system collect?
3 litres
177
Where do lymphatic vessels lie?
Adjacent to arteries and veins.
178
What is lymph oedema?
Swelling due to not enough lymph nodes or them not working correctly leading to a build up of interstitial fluid
179
What are the 3 types of tonsil?
Pharyngeal
Palatine
Lingual
180
Where do arteries and veins enter/leave the lymph node?
Hilum
181
What do the blood capillaries surround in the lymph node?
Lymphatic nodule
182
What is the middle part of the lymph node called?
Medulla
183
What are follicular dendritic cells and where are they located?
They are located in the germinal centres of the lymphatic nodules.
Antigen antibody complexed adhere to the dendritic processes and the cell can retain the antigen for months.
They cause proliferation of B cells (especially B memory cells).
184
What are examples of professional antigen presenting cells?
B cells and macrophages.
| Lymph nodes contain these.
185
Which cells mediate an inflammatory response?
Neutrophils and macrophages.
186
Which cells need APCs to recognise antigens?
T cells
187
What is lymphadenopathy?
Enlarged lymph nodes
188
Which is the largest lymphatic organ?
Spleen
189
What does the spleen do?
Filters blood
Immune functions: antigen presentation by APCs, activation and proliferation of B and T cells, production of antibodies, removal of macromolecular antigen com blood
Haemopoietic function ions: removal and destruction of old, damaged and abnormal RBC and platelets, removal of iron from haemoglobin.
190
What and where is the thymus?
It is in the superior mediastinum
| Matures bone marrow derived stem cells into T cells
191
What is complement and what does it do?
Consists of a group of serum proteins that activate inflammation, cell destruction and opsonisation.
192
What is opsonisation?
Making a cell more susceptible to phagocytosis.
193
What is the complement cascade?
The complement proteins responding in a sequential manner
194
How can the complement cascade be activated?
By the classical or alternative pathway.
195
What does the complement cascade result in?
Inflammation
Opsonisation
Membrane attack complex
196
What do capillaries connect?
Arterioles and venules
197
What are precapillary sphincters?
The are sphincters before the capillaries which can contract and stop blood entering the capillaries. Blood just flows through the thoroughfare channel from the arteriole to the venule.
198
What are starling forces?
Hydrostatic and oncotic forces involved in the movement of fluid across capillary membranes.
199
What is arteriolar capillary hydrostatic pressure?
35 mmHg
200
What is venular capillary hydrostatic pressure?
15 mmHg
201
What is blood colloid osmotic pressure?
25 mmHg
202
Explain the movement of fluid through the capillary membrane?
At the arterial end there is net filtration (movement out of capillary) because the capillary hydrostatic pressure is greater than the blood colloidal osmotic pressure.
In the mid capillary there is no net movement because the capillary hydrostatic pressure is equal to the blood colloidal osmotic pressure.
At the venous end there is net reabsorption (movement into capillary) because the capillary hydrostatic pressure is lower than the blood colloidal osmotic pressure.
203
What type of oedema does not pit?
Lymph oedema
204
Why does venous hypertension lead to haemosiderin staining?
RBC pushed out of vein due to high blood pressure. When phagocytes ingest and digest this they oxidise the red iron turning it brown.
205
What is palpation?
Putting your hand on and feeling
206
What is percussion?
Tapping
207
What is auscultation?
Listening with a stethoscope
208
Where does the abdominal aorta split in two?
Level with the belly button
209
Why would you not be able to feel the radial pulse?
```
Low blood pressure
Dead
Pressing too hard which occludes artery
Not pressing hard enough which would mean you aren't compressing the artery so can't feel it
Wrong place
Fat wrist
```
210
Where is the mastoid process?
Bony lump behind ear lobe
211
Is the nasal bone inferior or superior to the nasal cartilage?
Superior
212
What is the zygomatic arch?
Cheekbone
213
What is the angle of mandible?
Corner of jaw
214
Where is the hyoid bone?
In the neck just under the face
215
What is the thyroid cartilage also known as?
Adam's apple
216
Where is the cricoid cartilage?
Inferior to the thyroid cartilage
217
Where is the sternocleidomastoid muscle?
Connects the clavicle to the mastoid process
218
Where is the manubriosternal joint?
Where the body of the sternum meets the manubrium of the sternum
219
What does the nipple level show?
It shows the superior border of the liver
220
What is the costal margin?
It is the bottom of the ribcage at the front
221
What is an intercostal space?
Space between ribs
222
What can the position of the umbilicus be used for?
To separate the abdomen into 4 quadrants
223
What is the medial epicondyle?
Bone on medial side of elbow
224
Where does the ulnar nerve run?
Between the medial epicondyle and the tip of the elbow
225
What is the olecranon?
Tip of the elbow
226
Where is the head of ulna?
Bony part on medial side of distal forearm
227
What is the thenar eminence?
Muscle below thumb
228
What is the iliac crest?
Top back of pelvis
229
What is the greater trochanter?
Lateral surface of thigh. Bony part of femur.
230
What is the tibial tuberosity?
Part of bone below knee that sticks out
231
What is the tibia?
Shin bone
232
What is the medial and lateral malleoli?
Inside and outside ankle
233
What is the calcaneum?
Heel bone
234
What is another name for the mucous membrane?
Mucosa
235
What is another name for the serous membrane?
Serosa
236
Where would you find mucous membranes?
Line internal tubes which open to the exterior
Alimentary tract
Respiratory tract
Urinary tract
237
What does a mucous membrane consist of?
Epithelium
Connective tissue - lamina propria
In alimentary tract there is a layer of smooth muscle- muscularis mucosae
238
Where would you find serous membranes?
They line closed body cavities e.g. peritoneum, pleural sacs, pericardial sac
239
What is the serous membrane?
They are thin, two-part membranes
240
What do serous membranes consist of?
Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) which secretes a watery lubricating fluid.
A thin layer of connective tissue which attaches the epithelium to adjacent tissues.
241
What are the inside and outside parts of the serous membrane lining a body cavity called?
Outside- parietal serosa (pleura for lungs)
| Inside- visceral serosa
242
Which surfaces have epithelial linings?
```
Skin
GI tract
Reps tract
Genitourinary tract
Pericardial sac
Pleural sacs
Peritoneum
Blood vessels
Lymphatic vessels
```
243
What are the two main types of epithelia?
Simple- one cell layer thick
| Stratified/compound- more than one cell layer thick
244
What are the tiles of simple epithelia?
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Pseudostratified
245
What are the types of stratified epithelia?
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Transitional
246
What shape are simple squamous epithelia?
Quite flat
247
Where would you find simple squamous epithelia?
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Lining of blood and lymph vessels (endothelium)
Lining of body cavities-pleura etc.
Gas exchange epithelium
Bowman's capsule
Loop of Henle in kidney
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248
Functions of simple squamous epithelia?
Lubrication
Gas exchange
Barrier
Active transport by pinocytosis
249
What shape are simple cuboidal epithelia?
Fat cuboid
250
Where would you find simple cuboidal epithelia?
Thyroid follicles
Small ducts of exocrine glands
Kidney tubules
Surface of ovary
251
Functions of simple cuboidal epithelia?
Absorption and conduit
Absorption and secretion
Barrier/covering
Hormone synthesis, storage and mobilisation
252
What shape are simple columnar epithelia?
Long and thin cuboids.
| They can also have microvilli.
253
Where might you find simple columnar epithelia?
Stomach lining and gastric glands
| Small intestine and colon
254
What are functions of simple columnar epithelium?
Absorption
Secretion
Lubrication
Transport
255
What shape and arrangement do pseudostratified epithelia have?
Irregular shape and pattern
256
Where would you find pseudostratified epithelia?
Lining of nasal cavity, trachea and bronchi
257
What are the functions of pseudostratified epithelia?
Secretion and conduit
Absorption
Mucus secretion
Particle trapping and removal
258
Where would you find stratified non-keratinised epithelia?
```
Oral cavity
Oesophagus
Larynx
Vagina
Part of anal canal
Surface of cornea
Inner surface of eyelid
```
259
What are the functions of stratified squamous non-keratinised epithelia?
Protection against abrasion and reduction of water loss whilst remaining moist
260
Where would you find stratified squamous keratinised epithelia?
Surface of skin
| Limited distribution in oral cavity
261
What are the functions of stratified squamous keratinised epithelia?
Protection against abrasion and physical trauma
Prevention of water loss
Preventing ingress of microbes
Shields against UV damage
262
What is the epidermis of the skin made up of?
Stratified squamous keratinised epithelia
263
What are the four layers of the epidermis?
Stratum corneum, granular layer, prickle cell layer, basal layer
264
Which type of cells are in the epidermis and where are they made?
Keratinocytes which are made in the basal layer.
265
What do keratinocytes do?
They synthesise keratinised which contribute to the strength of the epidermis.
266
Where do daughter keratinocytes stop being able to divide?
Prickle cell layer
267
What happens to the keratinocytes in the granular layer?
Keratinocytes lose their plasmalemma and begin differentiating into corneocytes which are the main cells of the stratum corneum.
268
What does the granular layer of the epidermis contain?
```
Keratohyalin granules:
Keratins
Other fibrous proteins
Enzymes that degrade the plasmalemma
Cross link proteins
```
269
What is the stratum corneum made up of?
Flattened corneocytes (major role in skin barrier function).
270
What are the other cells of the epidermis?
Melanocytes-produce melanin
| Langerhans cells-medicate immune reactions and present antigens to T cells
271
What shape are transitional epithelia?
They vary in shape from columnar/cuboidal when relaxed to flattened when stretched.
272
Where can you find transitional epithelia?
Renal calyces
Ureters
Bladder
Urethra
273
What are the functions of transitional epithelia?
Distensibility
| Protection of underlying tissue from toxic chemials
274
What is a gland?
An epithelial cell or collection of cells specialised for secretion.
275
How can glands be classified?
By destination of secretion
By structure of the gland
By nature of secretion
By method of discharge
276
How can glands be classified by structure?
Unicellular/multicellular
Acinar/tubular
Coiled/branched
277
Which ion channel is not present in the apical membranes of cystic fibrosis sufferers?
CTFR
278
What does the lack of CFTR cause?
Chloride ion transport across the membrane to be compromised, so not enough water leaves the epithelium so the mucus becomes thick.
Blockage of pancreatic ducts
Buildup of mucus in lungs
279
What is an acinus?
The secretory part of many exocrine glands
280
How can glands be classified by method of secretion?
Merocrine- exocytosis
Apocrine- secreted droplets covered by plasmalemma
Holocrine- whole cell breaks down
281
What are the three major salivary glands?
Parotid, submandibular and sublingual
282
What type of gland is the pancreas?
Endocrine and exocrine
283
How can cystic fibrosis cause reproductive problems?
No vas deferens
| Poor sperm quality/motility
284
Is cartilage vascular or avascular?
Avascular
285
What is cartilage made up of?
Chondrocytes and an extensive extracellular matrix (made of proteoglycans)
286
What do chondrocytes do?
Produce and maintain the extracellular matrix in cartilage
287
What does the large ratio GAGs to type 2 collagen in the cartilage matrix allow?
Ready diffusion of substances between chondrocytes and blood vessels surrounding the cartilage
288
What are the 3 types of cartilage?
Hyaline
Elastic
Fibrocartilage
