Body Logistics Flashcards
Body Logs innit (199 cards)
1
Q
percentage of male human body that is water
A
60
2
Q
percentage of female human body that is water
A
55
3
Q
percentage/ fraction of water content in the body that is intracellular
A
66 (two thirds)
4
Q
percentage of body fluid that is extracellular
A
33 (one third)
5
Q
percentage of extracellular water that is interstitial
A
80
6
Q
percentage of extracellular fluid that is blood
A
20
7
Q
percentage of blood that is plasma
A
60
8
Q
percentage of blood that is haemocrit
A
40
9
Q
what does haemocrit mean?
A
it is the proportion of blood that consists of red blood cells
10
Q
weight of a normal male
A
70kg
11
Q
weight of a normal female
A
58kg
12
Q
volume of water in male body
A
42 litres
13
Q
litres of extracellular water in the body
A
14
14
Q
litres of intracellular water in the water
A
28
15
Q
litres of interstitial fluid
A
11
16
Q
litres of blood in the normal male human body
A
5
17
Q
litres of haemocrit in the normal male human body
A
2
18
Q
litres of plasma in the normal male human body
A
3
19
Q
homeostasis definition
A
“sameness standing still”
20
Q
what is pyrexia?
A
fever, when the body reaches a temperature of above 38.5 celsius
21
Q
normal temperature range of humans
A
37 degrees +/- 0.5
22
Q
arterial pH
A
7.45
23
Q
venous pH
A
7.35
24
Q
normal blood pH
A
7.4
25
what happens during pyrexia
infection, detection of pathogens, hypothalamus increases its temperature set point
26
why does pyrexia occur during infection
immune systems works most optimally at higher temperatures than normal body temperature.
27
heat stroke temperature
above around 46 degrees celsius
28
heat exhaustion temperature range
40-45ish degrees
29
fever temperature range
38.5 to 40 degrees celsius
30
mild hypothermia temperature range
32-35 degrees celsius
31
severe hypothermia temperature range
28 to 32 degrees celsius
32
at what core body temperature is a human so cold that they stop showing vital signs?
below 28 degrees celsius
33
list off as many heat stroke symptoms as you can
seizures/ unconsciousness, confusion, headache, dizziness, dry skin, vomiting and nausea, rapid shallow breathing, muscle cramping
34
list as many symptoms of heat exhaustion as you can
confusion, dizziness, fatigue, headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, muscle cramping, dry skin (no sweating)
35
mild hypothermia symptoms
shivering, fatigue, slurred speech, confusion and forgetfulness, muscle stiffness, dry skin (no sweating)
36
severe hypothermia symptoms
no shivering, rigid muscles, slow and weak pulse, drowsiness, reduction in response levels
37
what is acidosis?
when blood pH falls below 7.35
38
what is alkalosis?
when blood pH is above 7.45
39
what two organs maintain acid-base balance, and what types of acid-base balance do they maintain respectively?
lungs - respiratory balance
| kidneys - metabolic balance
40
what are the absolute limits of pH at which human tissue can survive?
6.8-7.8
41
total body water percentage in normal adult males
60
42
total body water percentage in normal adult females
50
43
total body water percentage in normal infants
70
44
total body water percentage in lean adult males
70
45
total body water percentage in lean adult females
60
46
total body water percentage in lean infants
70
47
total body water percentage in obese adult males
50
48
total body water percentage in obese adult females
42
49
total body water percentage in obese infants
60
50
hypotonicity
when a solution has a lower solute concentration than surrounding solutions
51
hypertonicity
when a solution has a higher solute concentration than surrounding solutions
52
isotonicity
when a solution has the same concentration of solutes to surrounding solutions
53
what does hypotonicity of surrounding solutions mean for water flow in cells?
it means that water moves into the cell (as it has more solute)
54
what does hypertonicity of surrounding solution mean for water flow in cells?
it means that water moves out of the cell (as surroundings have more solute)
55
what happens when there is too much water in the blood (hypotonic)?
water moves into cells via osmosis due to high osmotic pressure causing swelling, enzymes/proteins stop working, then cell bursts
56
why do patients need IV drips to be isotonic?
because it would result in swelling of cells such as erythrocytes
57
what is osmolarity and what is its clinical unit?
concentration of solute in solution per litre - unit is mol/L
58
what is osmolality?
concentration of total amount of solutes per kg of solution - unit is mOsmol/kg
59
is osmolarity dependent on temperature and pressure?
yes
60
is osmolality dependent on temperature and pressure?
no
61
what happens to a solute that ionises when calculation osmolality?
double/triple it as osmolality includes its anion concentration - whether you double or triple it depneds on charge
62
what is oncotic pressure?
the osmotic pressure flowing into the blood vessel as induced by albumin proteins
63
what is hydrostatic pressure?
the pressure causing water to move out of blood vessels
64
what causes peripheral oedema?
oncotic pressure is less than hydrostatic pressure, so water flows into cells - this can be caused by lack of albumin which has either leaked out of the blood vessels, or is just not there
65
what are the two types of acidosis?
metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis
66
what causes metabolic acidosis
buildup of lactic acid in the blood
67
what causes respiratory acidosis
hypoventilation
68
symptoms of acidosis
tremors, coma and feeling tired
69
what does the body do to combat metabolic alkalosis?
respiratory acidosis
70
what specialised epithelial cells line the stomach and what are their function?
goblet cells that produce mucus in order to prevent gastric juices damaging the lining of the organ
71
what is the liquid that causes such low pH in the stomach called?
gastric juice
72
what organ induces hydrostatic pressure?
the heart
73
what are compounds given to combat heartburn called?
antacids
74
list common antacids used to combat heartburn
aluminium hydroxide, calcium salts, and magnesium hydroxide
75
what is the most preferred antacid to use for heartburn?
aluminium hydroxide
76
why is aluminium hydroxide preferred as an antacid instead of any other antacid?
because it is insoluble, so has fewer side effects (think tonicity), it is milder and it is longer lasting
77
range of values of osmolality of the blood
280-295 mOsm/kg
78
where does the body first get fluid during dehydration?
from fluid within the gastrointestinal tract
79
therapeutic uses of hypothermia
slows blood pressure, so it can help treat victims of a cardiac arrest
80
what is hypoxemia
abnormally low levels of oxygen in the blood
81
what can be used after cardiac arrest to prevent swelling in the brain
hypothermia therapy
82
why does hypothermia work in treating the body after cardiac arrest?
After cardiac arrest, cells are not supplied with oxygen, leading to anaerobic respiration and lactate production - this leads to cell death, macrophage build up (to clear dead cells) and therefore cerebral oedema (brain swelling). Cooling the body slows the immune system and also prevents apoptosis (think enzymes), so further damage is prevented.
83
what is rigor and what causes rigor?
rigor refers to the reflex response of episodes of shaking caused by high fever in serious bacterial infection
84
where in the body is rigor triggered
anterior hypothalamus
85
what is a febrile seizure
A seizure often in children, caused by fever
86
four types of tissue
connective, epithelial, muscle, nerve
87
how are epithelial cells held together?
anchoring proteins
88
types of connective cells
chondrocytes, osteoblasts/clasts/cytes, fibroblasts, stem cells
89
what is ground substance?
gelatinous material in the extracellular matrix
90
types of muscle tissue
cardiac, smooth, skeletal
91
what is the definition of the limit of resolution
the smallest distance at which two objects can be distinguished as separate objects
92
what are disadvantages of electron microscopes in comparison to light microscopes?
only monochrome images can be seen, has a limited field of vision, is a lot more difficult and expensive to prepare and view from, and only dead objects can be seen
93
what is the advantage of electron microscopes in comparison to light microscopes?
can get way higher magnification (x500,000 in comparison to x600)
94
what is the purpose of fixation and preservation of tissue?
to prevent putrefaction
95
how to fix and preserve tissue
Embed in 10% formalin (neutral phosphate buffered saline with 40% formaldehyde), wash in alcohol, embed the tissue in melted paraffin wax, allowed to cool, place in a mould and pour even more wax on. Cut a very thin slice and then stain with hematoxylin and eosin
96
percentage of NaCl in IV fluid
0.9
97
what does eosin stain in cells?
the cytoplasm and intracellular matrix
98
what does hematoxylin stain in cells?
the nucleus and nucleolus
99
list the methods of obtaining a biopsy
tissue obtained from surgery, scarping methods (curettes and scalpel scrapes), needle biopsy, venepuncture.
100
what is venepuncture?
using a needle to withdraw blood directly from a vein
101
how does immunofluorescence work?
Tagging a fluorescent marker onto an antibody that attaches to a specific antigen of a specific cell. The area in which this antibody is will light up
102
how does immunohistochemistry work?
a secondary antibody is attached to a primary antibody - the secondary antibody also has an enzyme attached to it. When exposing the enzyme to a substrate, a precipitate forms, which exposes the site of the antibody
103
what type of enzyme is usually used for immunohistochemistry?
peroxidases
104
what precipitate is given off when peroxidases interact with their substrates (and 3,3 diaminobenzidine)?
brown precipitate
105
what is a lyzosome called when it has digested all of its digestible contents, and contains indigestible compounds?
a residual body
106
a residual body is?
a lyzosome which has digested its content and has indigestible compounds left inside
107
what is peroxide used in the body for?
oxidation of substrates (such as alcohol) and kill bacteria
108
where do all cells come from?
the epiblast
109
what are the only cells in the body that are separated?
ova, spermatozoa and erythrocytes
110
what are the three layers of the embryo during early embryonic development?
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm
111
what layer of the embryo does do epithelial cells come from?
all layers of the embryo
112
what layer of the embryo does the mucosal membrane come from?
the endoderm
113
where do muscles and connective tissue come from in the embryo layers?
the mesoderm
114
where do nerves cells originally come from within the embryo layers
the ectoderm
115
list ways in which cells within tissue are held together
cell to cell adhesion molecules, extracellular fibres, internal-external scaffolding, pressure from each cell (pushing power basically)
116
what is a mesenchymal stem cell?
it is a cell that differentiates into connective tissue
117
list as many of the junctions that are included in adherence systems in epithelial cells as possible
tight junctions, gap junctions, integrins, hemi-desmosomes, desmosomes, adhesion belt, proteoglycans, focal adhesions, integrins
118
where are tight junctions located relative to the an epithelial cell?
near to the apical membrane
119
what is the role of tight junctions?
to prevent larger molecules from the lumen entering deeper tissue layers
120
what fibres and proteins are adhesion junctions made from?
intracellular actin proteins that are connected to E-cadherin proteins that are intercellular to conncect cell to cell.
121
which cell are adhesion junctions found in?
epithelial cells (inc. endothelial)
122
what is meant by the adhesion belt of cells?
where multiple adhesion junctions gather (this card is a bit bullshit so don't worry if it doesn't make sense, i'm kind of tired)
123
what cell to cell adhesion is the strongest?
desmosome junctions
124
what proteins and fibres are used by desmosomes?
cytokeratin fibres and E-cadherin proteins
125
are desmosomes lateral junctions or basal junctions?
lateral mate.
126
what type of proteins is used for gap junction adhesions?
connexin proteins
127
what are gap junction adhesions used for?
to communicate between cells and transfer small molecules between cells.
128
what type of muscle cells are gap junctions found in?
smooth and cardiac
129
hemi-desmosome function
to anchor the cell to the basal lamina and prevent adherence of cells onto other/external surfaces (i.e epithelial cells of epidermis onto other surfaces like a table with glue on it)
130
which fibres and proteins do hemi-desmosomes use to adhere to the basal lamina?
cytokeratin fibres and integrin proteins.
131
do hemi-desmosomes attach laterally or to the basal lamina?
basal lamina
132
which proteins and fibres do focal adhesions use to attach to the basal lamina?
actin filament fibres and integrin proteins
133
which fibres do focal adhesions bind to?
fibronectin
134
where are laminin and fibronectin found
basal lamina
135
how do epithelial cells connect to muscle fibres?
through connective tissue
136
list the mucus membrane layers (from inside to out)
mucosa (consisting of the three layers - epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosa), submucosa, muscularis externa and then the serosa
137
which layer within the mucus membrane are the lymphatic vessels found?
lamina propria
138
three functions of the GI tract
absorb nutrients, prevent pathogens from entering, and expel waste.
139
what type of epithelial cells line the corpuscle lining of the nephron in the kidney?
simple squamous
140
what type of epithelial cells line the collecting ducts of the kidneys?
simple cuboidal
141
what would be the reason that the corpuscle lining of the kidney would have squamous cells?
because ultrafiltration happens very fast, and diffusion rate is directly proportional to diffusion distance
142
where within the urinary tract does the muscle layer start to appear?
ureter and bladder
143
give an example where a transitional epithelium is seen within the body
in the bladder's epithelium
144
what else is the transitional epithelium in the bladder referred to as?
urothelium
145
do epithelial cells within the bladder produce mucus?
yes
146
what purpose does the mucus in the bladder serve?
protects the bladder's lining from acidity (think about the 6.8 pH limit of tissue)
147
what is a key feature that you need to know about the muscularis externa in the GI tract?
inner muscularis externa is made of circular muscle, and the outer is made of longitudinal muscle
148
what is a key feature that you need to know about the muscularis externa in the GI tract?
inner muscularis externa is made of longitudinal muscle, and the outer is made of circular muscle
149
what is a key feature that you need to know about the muscularis externa in the GI tract?
inner muscularis externa is made of longitudinal muscle, and the outer is made of circular muscle
150
what type of epithelium lines the urethra?
stratified squamous
151
what type of epithelium lines the outlet of the urethra?
keretanised stratified squamous cells
152
what is the conducting portion of the repiratory tract?
the nasal cavity to bronchioles section
153
what is the respiratory section of the respiratory tract?
bronchioles to the alveoli section
154
what are the two sections of the respiratory tract?
respiratory and conducting portions
155
does the ureter have a submucosa?
yes
156
does the GI tract have a submucosa?
yes
157
does the ureter have a muscularis mucosa?
yes
158
does the respiratory tract have a muscularis mucosa?
no
159
does the trachea and the primary bronchi have a submucosa?
yes
160
what type of glands are present in the trachea?
seromucus glands
161
what do the seromucus glands secrete?
watery mucus
162
where is the hyaline cartillage found?
in the trachea
163
what shape is the hyaline cartillage in the trachea?
C-shaped
164
what two layers is the hyaline cartillage made from?
perichondrium and chondrogenic layer
165
what happens in the perichondrium layer of the hyaline cartillage?
fibroblasts lay down collagen fibres
166
what happens in the chondrogenic layer of the hyaline cartillage?
cartillage is formed from it
167
why can cartillage around the trachea be both hyaline and elastic?
because the cells can convert between chondroblasts and chondrocytes
168
what type of epithelium do secondary and tertiary bronchi have?
psuedostratified cillated
169
what is the role of elastin within the alveoli junctions?
to provide recoil to return sacs back to their empty state when air is breathed out.
170
what types of cells line the alveoli and the capillary endotheliam that are at the alveoli sacs
specialised squamous epithelial cells that are fused to the same basal lamina as the other side.
171
what fibres are between junctions on the alveoli sacs?
elastin and collagen.
172
what is meant by mucocilliary escalator
a mechanism in the trachea where mucus is lifted up the trachea by cillia
173
what cells come from the ectoderm?
epithelial (epidermal cells) and nervous cells?
174
what cells come from the mesoderm?
mesenchymal cells (then connective cells), epithelial cells (mesothelium for the serous fluid)
175
what are the serous membranes in the body?
peritoneal membrane, pleural membrane, pericardial cavities
176
list epithelia where simple squamous epithelium are found?
lining of the heart and blood vessels, pleural and peritoneal cavities and alveoli
177
list epithelia where simple cuboidal epithelial cells are found.
ducts of exocrine glands (accept thyroid and salivary glands), kidney tubules, suface of ovaries
178
what are langerhans cells?
dendritic immune cells between the basal layer and the granular layer - in the stratum spinosum (spinous layer)
179
what is the stratum corneum?
the layer of keratinised dead epidermal cells that protects the rest of the epidermis
180
what are islet cells?
they are cells within islets of Langerhans which either produce glucose or insulin
181
what are alpha cells?
cells within the islets of Langerhans that produce glucagon
182
what are beta cells?
cells within the islets of Langerhans which produce insulin (as well as amylin)
183
magnification of light microscopes
x600
184
magnification of electron microscopes
x500,000
185
resolution of light microscopes
0.25 micrometers
186
resolution of electron microscopes
0.25 nanometers
187
field of view of light microscopes
2 mm
188
field of view of electron microscopes
100 micrometers
189
what is the layer of keratinised dead epidermal cells that protects the rest of the epidermis?
stratum corneum
190
where are Langerhans cells?
in the stratum spinosum (spinous layer)
191
what cells within the islets of Langerhans produce insulin and amylin?
beta cells
192
what cells within the islets of Langerhans produce glucagon?
alpha cells
193
what type of epithelium do primary bronchi have?
cillated pseudostratified (collumnar) cells
194
how long does it typically take to make a frozen section for biopsy?
10 to 20 minutes
195
how long does it typically take to make a paraffin wax, formalin fixed
24-48 hours
196
How long do paraffin wax formalin fixed sections last
permanently
197
how long do frozen section stains last?
few months
198
what application/purpose is frozen section used for (clinically)
intraoperative consultation
199
what application/purpose is a paraffin embedded tissue section used for?
pathological diagnosis
