Body Systems Flashcards
(134 cards)
1
Q
What are the nutrients?
A
Chemicals in food that help your body perform its functions.
2
Q
What are the type of macronutrients and in what quantity do you need it in?
A
Substances required in large quantities.
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- Lipids (fats)
3
Q
What are the type of micronutrients and in what quantity do you need it in?
A
Substances required in small quantities.
- Vitamins
- Minerals
4
Q
What are carbohydrates and name the different types?
A
The most basic unit of sugar, carbohydrates are a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Types of Carbohydrates:
- Monosaccharide (single-ring)
- Disaccharide (two rings)
- Polysaccharide (many rings)
5
Q
What is glycogen?
A
Excess carbohydrates/glucose that is converted into fat and is stored in liver cells, fat cells, and muscle cells.
6
Q
What is fibre?
A
Cellulose that cannot be digested therefore it acts as fiber in our diet.
7
Q
What are proteins?
A
A complex molecule that is made up of 20 kinds of smaller subunits called amino acids. Many different functions of protein include:
- Long-term energy storage
- Formation of hair
- Formation of muscles
- Immune support
- Convey messages between cells
- Act as enzymes
8
Q
What are enzymes?
A
Proteins that speed up chemical reactions.
9
Q
What are the essential amino acids?
A
- 8 essential amino acids.
- Essential amino acids cannot be created by your body and must be obtained from food.
- Meat products contain all 8 essential amino acids.
- Legumes and whole grains contain only some of the essential amino acids.
10
Q
What are the non-essential amino acids?
A
- 12 non-essential amino acids.
- They are called non-essential because your body can create them on it’s own.
- You do not need to obtain these amino acids from food.
- Still essential to create proteins!!
11
Q
What are lipids also know as?
A
They are also known as fats
12
Q
What are the functions of lipids?
A
- Secondary energy source
- Insulation
- Padding and protection of organs
13
Q
What is Triglycerides?
A
How fat is typically stored, 3 fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone.
14
Q
What are fatty acids?
A
contain a carboxyl group (COOH) followed by a long chain of carbohydrates. The type of fatty acid is determined by:
- The number of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
- How the atoms are bonded.
- Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated
15
Q
What are saturated fats?
A
Considered to be unhealthy fats due to negative effects on the heart.
- Contain all single bonds between carbons, hence the carbons are fully saturated with hydrogens.
- Saturated fatty acids have a linear shape which allows them to pack tightly together.
- Therefore, they are solid at room temperature.
Butter is an example of a saturated fat
16
Q
What are unsaturated fats?
A
Considered to be healthy fats.
- Contain one (monounsaturated) or more than one (polyunsaturated) double bonds between carbons.
- Kinked or bent at each double bond.
- Difficult to pack together.
- liquids at room temperature
An example of unsaturated fat is olive oil.
17
Q
What are trans fats?
A
Considered to be very unhealthy fats due to extreme effects on heart health. Some are found naturally in meat and dairy products, others are manufactured by humans:
- Liquid unsaturated fats are made into solid trans fats
- a convenience to manufacture, or store products on grocery store shelves.
- Trans Fats Unsaturated fats (with double bonds) are hydrogenated – a process where hydrogen atoms are added to the fatty acid chains.
Example: fried foods
18
Q
What are vitamins?
A
Organic nutrients (contain carbon) that you need in small amounts to regulate body processes and perform chemical reactions. Vitamin supplements can be taken if food intake is not adequate or if the individual has a vitamin deficiency.
- Sensitive to heat and oxygen.
- Naturally occurring in foods.
- Prevent disease.
- Cannot be used for energy.
- Cook vegetables for a short time (not mushy) or eat raw.
19
Q
What are fat-soluble vitamins?
A
Any excess intake of these vitamins will be stored in fatty tissue for future use.
- You can overdose on these vitamins (you need A LOT to overdose).
Includes: Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K
20
Q
What are water-soluble vitamins?
A
Any excess intake of these vitamins will be excreted through the urine. They cannot be stored in the body.
- You cannot overdose on these vitamins.
- Includes: Vitamin C and Vitamin B
21
Q
What are minerals?
A
Inorganic nutrients (do not contain carbon) that are required in small amounts.
- Help to perform body functions and maintain body structures.
- Naturally occurring in foods.
- Mineral supplements can be taken if food intake is not adequate or if the individual has a deficiency.
- Include: Iron, iodine, zinc, magnesium, calcium, potassium
22
Q
Describe how your body uses the energy that it made?
A
When your cells convert food into energy, about 40% of it is used to perform cellular functions and 60% is lost as thermal energy which radiates from your body in the form of heat.
23
Q
What is Basal Metabolic Rate?
A
Your basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy that you require to carry out basic cellular reactions/bodily functions needed to survive.
24
Q
What are calories?
A
the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree celsius.
- Carbohydrates = 4 calories per gram
- Proteins = 4 calories per gram
- Fats = 9 calories per gram (Fats have more calories because they have more CarbonCarbon bonds. Breaking these bonds releases a lot of energy)
25
What are the The Four Stages of Food Processing?
1. Ingestion: The act of taking in food or liquid.
2. Digestion: Food is broken down into molecules that are small enough for the body to absorb.
3. Absorption
4. Elimination
26
What is physical digestion?
The process of physically breaking the food into smaller pieces.
27
What is chemical digestion?
The process of breaking down food into smaller molecules by breaking the chemical bonds in the food.
28
What is hydrolysis?
The reaction that breaks down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into smaller molecules.
29
Memorize body parts (diagram on the back).
Here.
30
What are the main organs in the human body?
* Mouth
* Pharynx
* Epiglottis
* Esophagus
* Stomach
* Small intestine
* Large intestine
31
What are the accessory organs in the human body?
* Salivary glands
* Pancreas
* Liver
* Gallbladder
32
What is the function of the mouth?
Ingestion Begins
* Physical Digestion:
* Tongue moves food towards teeth
* Teeth grind and cut up food (mastication/chewing)
* Chemical Digestion:
* Saliva released from the salivary glands begins to chemically break down starch (a type of complex carbohydrate).
33
What is the Specific Enzyme released in the mouth?
* Amylase (it’s contained within the saliva)
* Breaks down long, complex carbohydrates (starches) into simpler carbohydrates/sugars
34
What is the function of the pharynx?
The pharynx is the top portion of the throat, before the opening of the esophagus. (So basically carries the bolus from the mouth)
35
What is the function of the epiglottis?
Located at the end of the pharynx.
* Function:
* A flap of cartilage that closes over the trachea when swallowing food to stop food from entering the lungs
36
What is the function of the esophagus?
* Function:
* Tube that carries food to the stomach through muscular contractions called peristalsis.
37
What are the functions of the stomach?
* Function:
* J-shaped muscular bag where food is temporarily stored and where further chemical and mechanical digestion takes place.
* Also a site of mechanical digestion by muscles in stomach wall churning
* This churning turns the bolus into an acidic, nutrient rich liquid called chyme.
38
What enzyme is released in the stomach?
* Pepsin:
* Begins the chemical digestion of proteins
39
What are Other gastric juices that are released In the stomach?
* Other gastric juices that are released:
* Hydraulic Acid
* Mucus
40
What is the function of the small intestine?
* Function:
* Digestion is completed here.
* Undigested food (waste) passes on to the large intestine.
41
What are the 3 sections the small intestine is divided into?
* Duodenum
* Jejunum
* Ileum
42
What is the duodenum?
* Where MOST of digestion takes place (fats)
* When food enters the duodenum, the duodenum releases a hormone called secretin
* Secretin Stimulates the release of:
* Bile enters the duodenum from the liver and gallbladder. Bile breaks down fats.
* Enzymes such as trypsin enter the duodenum from the pancreas and break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
43
What is the Jejunum?
Absorption of nutrients such as carbohydrates and proteins occur here.
44
What is the Ileum?
Longest section; fats and bile salts are absorbed here.
45
What is the function of the large intestine?
* Function:
* Main function of large intestine is to absorb water (also absorbs some vitamins and ions)
46
What are the 4 segments the large intestine is broken down into?
* Broken to 4 Segments:
* Cecum
* Colon
* Rectum
* Anus
47
What are the salivary glands?
They make saliva and empty it into the mouth through openings called ducts.
48
What is saliva?
The saliva contains an enzyme called amylase. This enzyme catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into sugars
49
What is the liver?
The liver regulates most chemical levels in the blood and excretes a product called bile. This helps carry away waste products from the liver. All the blood leaving the stomach and intestines passes through the liver. (Definition retrieved from hopkinsmedicine.org)
50
What is the gallbladder?
Bile enters the duodenum from the liver and gallbladder. Bile breaks down fats. (Bile is not an enzyme)!
51
What is the pancreas (functions and enzymes produced)?
Enzymes such as trypsin enter the duodenum from the pancreas and break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
52
What is the Role of esophageal sphincter:
* At the entrance of the stomach, is the esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter
* The esophageal sphincter a ring of muscles opens to allow the bolus of food to enter the stomach and closes to prevent acid from stomach to enter the esophagus.
53
What is the Role of pyloric sphincter:
* At the bottom of the stomach, before entering the small intestine is a muscular sphincter called the pyloric sphincter.
* Opens to allow food to exit the stomach
* Controls the rate at which food exits the stomach
54
What are heartburns?
Heartburn is caused by a weak esophageal sphincter that is allowing stomach acid to splash up and into the esophagus.
55
How does the small intestine absorb nutrients?
Nutrients from the food pass into the bloodstream through the small intestine walls.
* Absorption of:
* 80% ingested water
* Vitamins
* Minerals
* Carbohydrates
* Proteins
* Lipids
56
What are villi located in the small intestine and what are they?
* Walls of the small intestine lined with finger-like extensions known as villi.
* Villi have even smaller finger-like extensions known as microvilli.
57
What do villi do in the small intestine?
* In it’s center, each villus has a network of microscopic blood vessels and lymph vessels (lacteal).
* Lymph vessels are structures that carry fluids away from cells.
* Fats are also absorbed into and transported by the lymph vessels.
58
What is cellular respiration?
Gas exchange at a cellular level (O2 into the cells, CO2 out) in order to produce energy. It occurs in the mitochondria.
Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (energy)
59
Memorize respiratory system organs and locations (diagram in the back).
Here.
60
What is the function of the nasal/oral cavity?
Used to intake and filter air before it enters the body.
61
What is the function of the pharynx?
Passageway for your food and oxygen, it is used for both the respiratory and digestive systems.
62
What is the function of the epiglottis?
A flap of cartilage that prevents food from entering the trachea.
63
What is the function of the trachea?
Also known as the windpipe, the trachea serves as passage for air and moistens and warms it while it passes into the lungs.
64
What is the function of the larynx?
a passageway for air that is located above the trachea and below the epiglottis.
65
What is the function of the bronchi?
air passages that connect your trachea to your lungs.
66
What is the function of bronchioles?
The result of the bronchi when they divide into smaller tubes that lead to the alveoli.
67
What is the function of the alveoli?
Very small air sacs that exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen and vise versa. There are 150 million alveoli in each lung.
68
What is the function of the diaphragm?
A large sheet of muscle that is located under the lungs that contracts and relaxes to inhale and exhale air.
69
How does gas exchange happen in the alveoli?
gas exchange occurs between the air and blood in the alveoli. Carbon dioxide is removed from the blood in order to be exhaled
70
What is partial pressure?
the pressure of each of the individual gasses that make up the total pressure of a mixture of gasses.
71
What i diffusion?
oxygen and carbon dioxide will always diffuse from an area higher partial pressure to an area of lower partial pressure
72
Describe the transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide?
* Oxygen is transported in blood through hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein in red blood cells. Oxygen binds to hemoglobin to be transported through the blood to the rest of the body.
* Carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product by the cells in cellular respiration. The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells and into the bloodstream. The blood now must carry the carbon dioxide (eventually) back to the lungs to be exhaled.
73
What is the Regulation of breathing (medulla oblongata)?
The medulla oblongata sends nerve signals to your rib muscles and diaphragm, telling them to contract and relax.
74
What is inhalation?
* Diaphragm and internal intercostal muscles contract, expanding the chest.
* Air pressure inside the lung is reduced and air flows into the lungs.
75
What is exhalation?
* Relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
* Air pressure inside the lung increases and air is forced out of the lungs.
76
What is external respiration?
Occurs between the alveoli and the capillaries next to them
77
What is internal respiration?
Occurs between the capillaries and the body tissues.
78
What are pleural membrane?
thin layers of connective tissue that cover the surface of the lungs, and line the thoracic cavity. In between the membranes is the pleural cavity which is filled with fluid to allow them to slide along each other.
79
What is total lung capacity?
The total amount of air that can fit in your lungs (total capacity of about 6 Liters)
80
What is tidal volume?
The volume of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal, involuntary breath.
81
What is Inspiratory reserve volume?
The volume of air that can be forcibly inhaled after normal inhalation.
82
What is Expiratory reserve volume?
The volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal exhalation.
83
What is residual volume?
The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation
84
What is vital capacity?
The maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled, vital capacity in males is approx. 4.4 – 4.8 L and the vital capacity in females is approx. 3.4 – 3.8 L
85
86
Describe Altitude and respiration.
* At higher altitudes, the oxygen partial pressure is also lower at altitude.
* As the partial pressure of oxygen drops, the difference between the oxygen partial pressure in the atmosphere and in lungs decreases.
* This decreased diffusion gradient makes oxygen diffuse into the lungs much slower, making it harder to breathe.
* Due to reduced oxygen supply, the kidneys secrete more erythropoietin (EPO).
* This hormone stimulates the production of red blood cells and increases the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed from the air and delivered to your cells.
* This is why athletes train at altitude! They want more red blood cells!
87
What is asthma?
It is a chronic respiratory disease characterized by inflammation and swelling of the bronchi and bronchioles, thus obstructing airflow.
88
What is Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease?
* Long-term disease which is a combo of bronchitis and emphysema.
* Mainly caused by smoking.
* Symptoms are similar to those of asthma.
* Bronchitis aspect is similar to asthma in that bronchi and bronchioles become inflamed and produce excess mucus.
89
What is Cystic fibrosis?
A hereditary disorder in which mucous in the airways is unusually thick and sticky, thus decreasing airflow.
90
Describe the effects of smoking.
* Tar is a black sticky substance that you inhale with all types of smoke.
* The mucous in the bronchi and bronchioles trap the tar as it is a foreign substance.
* Since the tar has carcinogenic compounds, it mutates the cells on the lining of the airways, thus causing lung cancer.
* Smoke also contains carbon monoxide.
* When breathed in, carbon monoxide takes oxygen’s place and attaches to hemoglobin. The bond between hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is 200x stronger than between hemoglobin and oxygen.
* As a result, there is reduced oxygen delivery to cells.
91
What are the 2 main functions of the circulatory system?
* Remove carbon dioxide and cellular wastes from body tissues
* Deliver oxygen and nutrients to body tissues
92
What is blood?
* A highly specialized connective tissue
* Transports nutrients, wastes, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
* Helps to regulate body temperature
* Helps to fight infections
* Helps to heal wounds
93
What are the components of blood?
* Plasma (55%)
* Red blood cells (45%)
* White blood cells (\<1%)
* Platelets (\<1%)
94
What is plasma?
* 90% is water, which helps to maintain body temperature
* 10% made up of proteins, dissolved nutrients (fatty acids and vitamins), ions, and wastes.
95
What are Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)?
* Function:
* Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
* Double sided concave discs to increase surface area
* Formed in stem cells in bone marrow
* Contain no nucleus, meaning they cannot grow or divide
* Typical lifespan of a red blood cell is 100-120 days
96
What is hemoglobin?
* A protein found in red blood cells
* Each hemoglobin molecule contains four iron molecules
* The iron portion of hemoglobin binds to oxygen
* Without hemoglobin, oxygen would not bind to red blood cells.
97
What is anemia?
A condition in which an individual lacks healthy blood cells to transport oxygen
98
What are the functions of White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)?
* Function
* Cells that guard against infection
* Can move outside of blood vessels to fight infection
* Also produced in the bone marrow, but contain a nucleus, so they can divide via mitosis
99
What are Granular Leukocytes?
* Include neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
* Attracted to areas of infection
* Contain granules in their cytoplasm which attack foreign substances/micro-organisms that the leukocyte takes in.
100
What are Agranular Leukocytes?
* Include lymphocytes and monocytes
* Specialized for engulfing bacteria, dead cells, and other “debris” in the bloodstream
* Once engulfed, the lymphocyte/monocyte breaks down the bacteria via phagocytosis
* Both the white blood cell and the bacteria die, leaving pus behind
101
What are platelets?
* Function
* Cell fragments that cause blood to clot
* This is essential in stopping bleeding from a cut or wound
* Created when cytoplasm of bone marrow cells divide
102
What is blood clotting?
* Platelets stick to the damaged blood vessel and release clotting factors
* Clotting factors make nearby platelets sticky and activate a series of reactions
* The reactions result in the formation of a strand-like protein called fibrin
* Fibrin create a net-like network and trap red blood cells, thus stopping bleeding
* This net eventually dries up and becomes a scab which protects the area while new tissue grows
103
What is hemophilia?
Individuals with hemophilia (X-linked recessive disorder) do not have the necessary proteins to form blood clots. This can be dangerous as a cut can cause extensive bleeding.
104
What are the arteries?
* Function
* Always carry blood away from the heart
* Usually carry oxygenated blood
* Largest type of blood vessel
* Walls made of epithelial tissue wrapped in smooth muscle and connective tissue
105
What is pressure?
* Highly pressurized, forcing blood to flow in one direction (away from heart and towards body tissues)
* Branch into smaller and smaller arterioles
* Eventually flow into capillaries
106
What are capillaries?
* Function
* Microscopic blood vessels that connect arteries and veins
* Site of gas exchange with body tissues
* Oxygen is deposited into tissues
* Carbon dioxide is removed from tissues
* Very thin walls so that gas molecules can pass through
107
What are veins?
* Always carry blood towards the heart
* Usually carry deoxygenated blood
* Also consist of epithelial tissue surrounded by smooth muscle and connective tissue but smooth muscle layer is thinner than in arteries
108
Learn to label the diagram of a heart (diagram on the back).
Here.
109
What are the steps of the cardiac cycle?
* When the heart relaxes, it fills with blood.
* The heart pumps blood by contracting. Every contraction is a heart beat.
* The process of filling with blood and then pumping the blood out is known as the cardiac cycle.
* The amount of blood pumped out in one beat is known as the stroke volume
110
What is Pericardium?
* The heart is surrounded by a protective membrane-like sac known as the pericardium
* The pericardium protects the heart and lubricates the heart’s surface
111
What is the septum?
The left and right sides of the heart are separated by a muscular wall known as the septum
112
What are the chambers of the heart?
* Right Atrium
* Right Ventricle
* Left Atrium
* Left Ventricle
113
What are the heart valves?
* There are 4 valves in the heart (note some of them have a second name used by people):
* The tricuspid atrioventricular valve separates the right atrium from the right ventricle.
* The mitral (bicuspid) atrioventricular valve separates the left atrium from the left ventricle.
* The pulmonary (semi-lunar) valve separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery.
* The aortic (semi-lunar) valve separates the left ventricle from the aorta.
114
What is the pathway of blood through the circulatory system?
* Superior Vena Cava: Main vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium
* Inferior Vena Cava: Main vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atriu
* Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava, and pumps it to the right ventricle.
* Right Atrioventricular Valve: Blood passes through the atrioventricular valve which prevents the backflow of blood.
* Right Ventricle: Receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium, and pumps it through the pulmonary artery
* Pulmonary Valve: Blood passes through the pulmonary valve which prevents the backflow of blood.
* Pulmonary Artery: The only artery that carries deoxygenated blood! Carries blood to the lungs to get oxygen.
* Pulmonary Veins: After the blood has received oxygen from the lungs, it returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins (the only veins that carry oxygenated blood!).
* Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps it to the left ventricle.
* Left Atrioventricular Valve: Blood passes through the atrioventricular valve to prevent the backflow of blood.
* Left Ventricle: Receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps through the aorta
* Aortic Valve: Blood passes through the aortic valve to prevent backflow of blood.
* Aorta: Main artery that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.
115
What is the super vena cava?
Main vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium
116
What is the inferior vena cava?
Main vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium
117
What is the right atrium?
Receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava, and pumps it to the right ventricle.
118
What is the Right Atrioventricular Valve?
Blood passes through the atrioventricular valve which prevents the backflow of blood.
119
What is the Right Ventricle?
Receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium, and pumps it through the pulmonary artery
120
What is the Pulmonary Valve?
Blood passes through the pulmonary valve which prevents the backflow of blood?
121
What is the Pulmonary Artery?
The only artery that carries deoxygenated blood! Carries blood to the lungs to get oxygen
122
What are the Pulmonary Veins?
After the blood has received oxygen from the lungs, it returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins (the only veins that carry oxygenated blood!).
123
What is the left atrium?
Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps it to the left ventricle.
124
What is the Left Atrioventricular Valve?
Blood passes through the atrioventricular valve to prevent the backflow of blood.
125
What is the Left Ventricle?
Receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps through the aorta
126
What is the Aortic Valve?
Blood passes through the aortic valve to prevent backflow of blood.
127
What is the aorta?
Main artery that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.
128
What is the difference between pulmonary and systematic circuit?
* The pulmonary circuit is the path of blood between the heart and the lungs
* The systemic circuit is the path of blood between the heart and the rest of the body
129
What is the Regulation of heartbeat?
Receives blood supply from coronary arteries which run along the surface of the heart
130
What is the SA node?
* The pace of your heart is set by the pacemaker or sinoatrial (SA) node
* The pacemaker sends electrical signals which tell your heart how often to beat
131
What is the AV Node?
* The sinoatrial node causes the atria to contract, and sends a signal to the atrioventricular (AV) node
* The AV node sends the signal through the Purkinje fibers in the septum which cause the electrical impulse needed to make the ventricles to contract.
132
What is blood pressure?
* is the force of blood pushing against blood vessel walls. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
* Consists of two numbers on top of each other
* The top number is known as systolic blood pressure (avg. 120 mmHg)
* The bottom number is known as diastolic blood pressure (avg. 80 mmHg) ie. 120/80
133
What is Systolic blood pressure?
refers to the pressure in the arteries immediately after the ventricles contract
134
What is Diastolic blood pressure?
refers to the pressure in the arteries during the relaxation (filling) phase of the heart beat
