Bone and Biomechanics Flashcards
(222 cards)
1
Q
What do tissues consist of?
A
cells and extracellular materials/fluids.
2
Q
What are the 4 basic tissue types?
A
- Epithelial Tissue
- Connective Tissue
- Muscle Tissue
- Nervous Tissue
3
Q
What is the function of epithelial tissue?
A
> Covers exposed surfaces and internal pathways. >Provides protection and sensations.
Controls permeability.
produces a secretion.
e.g skin
4
Q
What is epithelial tissue made up of?
A
Epithelia and glands.
5
Q
what is the function of tissue?
A
>Provides structure for the body. >Support for other tissues. >Protection of organs. >Transportation of fluids. >Storage of energy. >Defense from Microorganisms.
6
Q
What are the 3 categories of connective tissue?
A
> Connective Tissue Proper: can be loose or dense.
Fluid Connective Tissue: blood and lymph.
Supportive connective tissue: cartilage and bone.
7
Q
What are the 3 categories of muscle tissue?
A
> Skelatal
Cardiac
Smooth
8
Q
What is the function of muscle tissue?
A
Provide movement.
9
Q
What is the function of nervous tissue?
A
Conduction of electrical impulses and transport information.
e.g neurons and glia
10
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
Maintenance of ‘normal’ set points.
11
Q
What is feedback?
A
When a variable is too far from the set point and the body responds by returning it back to normal.
12
Q
What is feedforward?
A
When the body does something to minimise the effect of a possible change in a variable.
13
Q
What is superior?
A
Above something.
14
Q
What is inferior?
A
Bellow something.
15
Q
What is proximal?
A
Referring to limbs, closer to the point of attachment.
16
Q
What is distal?
A
Referring to limbs, further from the point of attachment.
17
Q
What is anterior?
A
In front of
18
Q
What is posterior?
A
Behind
19
Q
What is deep?
A
Further from surface
20
Q
What is superficial?
A
Close to surface
21
Q
What are the 3 anatomical planes?
A
- Sagital
- Colonel
- Transverse
22
Q
What is the cut of Sagital
A
Front and right
Giving left and right sections
23
Q
What is the cut of Colonel?
A
Side to side
Giving front and back sections
24
Q
What is the cut of Transerve
A
Horizontal
Upper and lower sections
25
What is flexion?
Decreasing the angle
26
What is extension?
Increasing the angle
27
What is dorsiflexion?
Brings the toes upwards
28
What is plantaflexion?
Pointing toes down
29
What is abduction?
Moving limbs away from the body
30
What is adduction?
Moving limbs towards the body
31
What is circumduction?
Occurs at joints that undergo flexion, extension, abduction and adduction
32
What is Rotation?
Occurs around the long axis of a joint. Can be lateral (rotation outwards) or medial (rotation inwards).
33
What is pronation?
Palm faces posteriorly
34
What is supination?
Palm faces anteriorly
| Forearm bones are parallel
35
What is inversion?
The sole of the foot faces inwards
36
What is eversion?
The sole of the foot faces outwards
37
What are the 5 functions of the skeleton? (SSMPR)
1. Support
2. Storage
3. Movement
4. Protection
5. Red blood cell formation
38
What are the 2 types of bone tissue?
1. Compact
| 2. Cancellous/trabecular
39
What is compact bone?
Strong and good at transmitting force in 1 direction.
40
What is cancellous bone?
Light and spongy, absorbs shock and resists/channels forces in multiple directions.
41
What is the structure of long bones?
> Longer than they are wide
| > Wide epiphyses, long and narrow diaphyses
42
What is the function of long bones?
Leavers for movement
43
What are the structures of short bones?
> Equally wide as they are long
| > Mostly cancellous
44
What is the function of short bones?
Weight-bearing from multiple directions
45
What is the structure of flat bones?
Thin plates of compact bone (some cancellous)
46
What is the function of flat bones?
> Muscle attachment
| > Protection
47
What is the structure of irregular bones?
> Doesn't fit within the other categories
| > Usually has a hole in it
48
What is the function of irregular bones?
Various
49
What are examples of long bones?
```
Tibia
Fibula
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Metatarsals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
```
50
What are examples of short bones?
Carpals
| Tarsals
51
What are examples of flat bones?
Scapular
Skull
Sternum
Ribs
52
What are examples of irregular bones?
Vertebrae
pelvic bones
Sacrum
53
What are the 2 divisions of the skeleton?
Axial and appendicular
54
What does the axial skeleton consist of?
Skull
Vertebral column
Rib cage
55
What is the skull made up of?
Cranium and facial bones
56
What is the vertebral column made up of?
```
Cervical spine (7)
Thoracic spine (12)
Lumbar spine (5)
Sacrum
Coccyx
```
57
How many ribs do we have?
24
58
What does the appendicular skeleton consist of?
Upper limbs and lower limbs
59
What does the upper limb consist of?
>Humerus (arm)
>Radius and ulan (forearm)
>Hands - Carpals (8), metacarpals (5) and phalanges (3 per finger and 2 per thumb)
60
What is the pectoral girdle?
Attaches the upper limb to the axial skeleton. It consists of the clavicle ( a stabilising strut) and the scapular (free-moving).
61
What does the lower limb consist of?
> Femur (thigh)
> Tibia and fibula (leg)
> Feet - tarsals (7), metatarsals (5) and phalanges (2 per toe and 2 per big toe).
62
What is the pelvic girdle?
Attached the lower limb to the axial skeleton. It consists of 2 hip bones and the sacrum. It functions to weight bear.
63
What is bipedalism?
Walking on 2 limbs.
64
What is quadrupedalism?
Walking on 4 limbs
65
What is the function of the lower limbs?
Stability and movement - cannot supinate or pronate and are made to bear weight.
66
What is the function of the upper limbs?
Precise movements - able to supinate and pronate.
67
What is the composition of bones?
Calcified extracellular matrix made up of connective tissue.
68
What is the organic bone matrix?
> Makes up 33%
> made up of proteins containing collagen and proteoglycans.
> Resists tension
69
What is the inorganic bone matrix?
> Makes up 67%
> Made up of minerals such as hydroxyapatite and other calcium minerals.
> Resists compression
70
What are the 4 cell types found in the bone?
1. Osteogenic cells
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteoclasts
4. Osteocytes
71
What are osteogenic cells?
Stem cells that create osteoblasts
72
What are osteoblasts?
Produce new bone matrix
73
What are osteoclasts?
Destroy bone matrix
74
What are osteocytes?
Mature bone cells recycle proteins & minerals from the matrix and control the activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
75
What is the structure of compact bone?
> Osteon structure
> Appears dense and impenetrable.
> Contains foramina for blood supply
> Osteon units and circumferential lamellae
76
What is the structure of cancellous bone?
> Trabecular structure
> Struts of lamella surrounded by marrow
> Orientation of the struts resists forces in multiple directions and directs force down the shaft in 1 direction to spread force distally
77
What is the function of Osteons?
A longitude unit of compact bone: a pathway for nutrients to reach cells in the ECM.
78
What is the function of the central canal?
Contains blood vessels and nerves.
79
What is the function of lamellae?
Cylinders of ECM surrounding the central canal: forms osteon shape and resists forces via collagen fibres.
80
What is the function of lacunae?
Lakes of osteocytes
81
What is the function of canaliculi?
nutrient channels through ECM
82
What is appositional growth?
Allows the bone to grow in width
Bone matrix is added in lamellae to the bone surface I osteoblasts, whilst bone is removed from the medullary cavity by osteoclasts.
83
Why do bones have to maintain homeostasis?
It is constantly being created ad destroyed to allow the metabolism of minerals from the matrix.
84
What are Osteoporosis and osteopenia?
Where osteoclasts are working more than the osteoblasts.
85
What is the process of ossification?
> Density increases in the centre of the cartilage model - begins to calcify.
> Blood vessels and osteoblasts form outside.
> Blood vessels and osteoblasts develop inside cartilage.
> Medullary cavity and compact bone form.
> Ossficiation centre developed.
86
Where is the primary centre of ossification?
Diaphysis
87
Where is the secondary centre of ossification?
Epiphysis - this is why we have a growth plate because it remained as cartilage to enable uninterrupted growth.
88
Where does growth in length occur?
Growth plate
89
Where does growth in width occur?
Via appositional growth, in which osteoblasts for circumferential lamellae and osteoclasts form the medullary cavity.
90
What are joints?
Where bones articulate.
| They have no inorganic material and made up of cartilage.
91
What is the general composition of cartilage?
> Collagen fibres in a grounded substance.
> Chondrocytes in the lacuna between collagen fibres.
> Blood vessels do not penetrate cartilage thus they have a slow healing process.
> Cartilage receives nutrients that diffuse through the matrix by joint loading.
92
What is the function of hyaline cartilage?
> Resist compression
> Moulds to surfaces of bone where they articulate
> Frictionless, smooth movement
> Degrade with age
93
What does fibrocartilage consist of?
Bundles of collagen fibres throughout the matrix that align with stresses. Generally found in joints that encounter both compression and tension.
94
What does hyaline cartilage consist of?
Barely visible collagen fibres with a high water content in the matrix.
95
What is the fuctionn of fribrocartilage?
> Resist compressiona and tesion
> Deepening of articular surface
> Buffer / shock absorber to distribute force over a wider area 'cushion'
96
What is the composion of ligaments and tendons?
> Dense fibrous connective tissue (DFCT) which consists of collagen, elastin and fibroclats.
97
What is the purpose of ligaments and tendons?
To resist tension
98
Why do ligaments and tendons take long to heal?
They have minimal vascularity
99
What are ligaments?
Connect bone to bone
> Function to restrict movement away from themselves
> Low elastin content, mostly mad eup of collagen.
100
What movemnt do ligaments reistrict?
> Lateral = resitrict medial movement (adduction)
| > Medial = restrict lateral movement (abduction)
101
What are tendons?
Connect bone to muslce
> Function to facilitate and control movement and aid contraction b transmitting mucle movement to bone.
> Higher elastin content - more control of movement.
102
What is bony congurance>
Amount of bone surfaces that articulate.
| > Inversely proportional to the amount of soft tissue support needed in a joint.
103
Define tissues
How cells are grouped together in a highly organised manner according to specific structures and function.
104
Define structures
Something formed by tissues.
105
What are the 3 main types of joint classification?
1. Fibrous Joints
2. Cartilaginous joints
3. Synovial joints
106
What is the tissue and structure of fibrous joints?
T: DFCT
S: ligament
107
What is the function of fibrous joints?
> Limit movement
| > Provide stability
108
Examples of fibrous joints
> Cranial sutures
| > Distal tibiofibular joint
109
What is the tissue and structure of cartilaginous joints?
T: fibrocartilage
S: various - connected entirely by cartilage
110
What is the function of cartilaginous joints?
> Allow some movement
| > Various specialised functions
111
Examples of cartilaginous joints
> Intervertebral discs
| > Pubic symphysis
112
What is the tissue and structure for synovial joints?
Various
113
What is the function of synovial joints?
Free moving
114
Example of synovial joints
Most limb joints
115
What determines the ROM a joint can undergo?
Bone ends
116
What is the synovial membrane in the knee?
Lines the inner surface of the joint capsule and lubricates the joint by secreting synovial fluids.
117
What are the 2 ligaments of synovial joints?
1. Capsular ligament
| 2. Intracapsular ligament
118
What is the capsular ligament?
> Make up the joint capsule by holding the bones together.
| > Tight and thick where support is needed and loose where movement is allowed.
119
What is the intracapsular ligament?
> Restricts movement between bones.
120
What movement does the ACL restrict?
Femoral displacement posteriorly
121
What movement does the PCL restrict?
Femoral displacement anteriorly
122
What is the trade-off in synovial joints?
stability and mobility
123
What is the difference between biaxial and uniaxial?
Biaxial is many planes whereas uniaxial is only 1
124
What are the axis and movements for the plane joint?
multiaxial
| sliding and gliding
125
What is an example of a plane joint?
Intercarpal and intertarsal joints
126
What are the axis and movements for the hinge joint?
Uniaxial
| Flexion & extension
127
What is an example of a hinge joint?
Ankle
Elbow
Interphalangeal joints
128
What are the axis and movements for the pivot joint?
Uniaxial
| Rotation
129
What is an example of the pivot joint?
Radio-ulna joints
| C1 and C2
130
What are the axis and movements for the condylar joint?
Biaxial
| Flexion & extension, rotation
131
What is an example of the condylar joint?
Knee
| Temporomandibular
132
What are the axis and movements for the ellipsoid joint?
Biaxial
| Flexion & extension, abduction & adduction, circumdation (no rotation)
133
What is an example of the ellipsoid joint?
Wrist joint
134
What are the axis and movements for the saddle joint?
Biaxial
| Flexion & extension, abduction & adduction, circumduction, obligatory rotation
135
What is an example of the saddle joint?
Carpometacarpal joint
136
What are the axis and movements for the ball and socket joint?
Multiaxial
| Flexion & extension, abduction & adduction, circumduction, rotation.
137
What is an example of a ball and socket joint?
Shoulder
| Hip
138
What is the process of osmosis?
Movement of water from a high concentration to a low concentration.
139
What is the composition of fluids in males?
```
60%
> 33% ICF
> 21.5% ECF
> 4.5% plasma
> less than 1% other
```
140
What is the composition of fluids in females?
```
50%
> 27% ICF
> 18% ECF
>4.5% plasma
> less than 1% other
```
141
How is water conc maintained?
Water is absorbed from the digestive tract and formed as a byproduct via metabolic processes.
142
How is water lost?
> Sweat
> Respiration
> Urine/feases
143
Explain isotonic
ECF and ICF are balanced therefore no net water movement (eqbm).
144
Explain hypertonic
Water loss from ECF = lowered water (high solute) in respect to ICF. The cell will become flaccid (cell volume decrease) as water moves from the ICF to the ECF.
145
Explain hypotonic
Water gain from ECF = high water (low solute) in respect to ICF. The cell will become turgid (cell volume increases) as water moves from ECF to ICF.
146
What is the movement of ions in the body?
Ions are absorbed from the digestive tract into ICF and lost from the ECF from sweat glands and kidneys.
147
What tissues have an excitable membrane potential?
Excitable membranes such as neurons and muscles.
148
What are the cations in the body?
Na+ and K+
| There is also Ca2+
149
What are the anions in the body?
Cl- and proteins
150
What is the function of the lipid bilayer?
Prevents the free flow of ions in and out of the cell.
151
What is the concentration of ions outside of the cell (ECF)?
High Na+
| Low K+
152
What is the concentration of ions inside of the cell (ICF)?
Low Na+
| High K+
153
What is the resting membrane potential (RMP) inside of the cell?
-70mV
| Slightly more negative than the outsdie.
154
What is the purpose of the Na+/K= exchange pump?
Create a difference in ions in the cell and therefore charge.
155
How does the exchange pump against the concentration gradient?
Uses ATP to pump Na+ against the CG (out of the cell), thus is active transport. Simultaneously, K+ ions are pumped down the CG (into the cell).
156
The potassium chemical gradient points (into or out of) the cell
OUT of
157
The potassium electrical gradient points (into or out of) the cell
IN to
158
The potassium electrochemical gradient points (into or out of) the cell
OUT of
159
The sodium chemical gradient points (into or out of) the cell
IN to
160
The sodium electrical gradient points (into or out of) the cell
IN to
161
The sodium electrochemical gradient points (into or out of) the cell
IN to
162
Define depolarisation
Membrane potential becomes less -ve (+), chemical stimulus opens sodium ion channels.
163
Define repolarisation
Membrane potential returns to 'normal' -70mV, stimulus removed, excess sodium ions transported out of the cytosol.
164
Define hyperpolarisation
Membrane potential becomes more -ve, chemical stimulus opens potassium ion channels.
165
What is the location of smooth muscles?
Lines hollow organs.
| e.g gut, blood vessels.
166
What is the function of smooth muscles?
Not under voluntary conditions.
167
What is the location of cardiac muscles?
Heart
168
What is the function of cardiac muscles?
Generates force to pump blood around the body, not under voluntary control.
169
What is the location of skeletal muscles?
Between bones
170
What is the function of skeletal muscles?
Under voluntary control.
> Develop tension or force (1 direction)
> Support and protect internal organs
> Provide voluntary control over major openings
> Converts energy to heat
> Provide a major store for energy/ proteins.
171
What are skeletal muscle fibres?
Large multinucleated cells with an abundance of proteins, connective tissue, blood vessels and nerve fibres.
172
What are fascicles?
Bundles of fibres which bundle up to form muscles
173
What are tendons?
Connective tissue that gathers at the end.
174
What are muscle fibres?
Multinucleated and have thousands of nuclei. Mycrofibrils bundle up to form these which are made up of repeating sarcomere units.
175
What are sarcomere units?
made up of 2 myofilaments: actin and myosin. Organised in a way to give muscles a saturated appearance.
176
What are transverse tubules (t-tubules)?
Tubular extensions of the sarcomere units. Conduct action potentials deep into the muscle fibre.
177
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)?
A membranous, tubular network that is associated with t-tubules at regular intervals.
178
What is the function of the SR?
Store Ca2+ and release it into the cytoplasm when an action potential is conducted along the associated t-tubule.
179
What is actin?
The globular protein made up of globules (g-actin) that assemble to form filamentous protein strands (f-actin). It is made up of 2 twisted f-actin strands that terminate at the z-line.
180
What is myosin?
A molecule with a long, thin tail and a globular head that has the ability to flex. The thick filament is made up of pairs of myosin molecules of which the tails are pointing towards the m-line, thus forming a double-headed structure.
181
What is the function of contractile proteins?
Develop force by the myosin heads of the thick filament 'walking' along the thin filament, causing the interlaced filaments to slide past each other (sliding filament theory).
182
What are the stages of E-C coupling?
1. AP from the nerve causes synaptic transmission at the NMJ to trigger an ap in the muscle fibre.
2. Muscle ap spreads over the sarcolemma surface and invades the t-tubular system.
3. Depolarisation within the t-tubular system triggers Ca2+ release from nearby SR terminals.
>mechanical activation of the SR Ca2+ release channel by the voltage sensor.
4. Ca2+ releases into sarcoplasm to promote Ca2+ binding to contractile apparatus.
> Myosin then binds actin and the filaments slide.
> Forces generated - CONTRACTION.
5. Calcium pumped from the intracellular space and back into SR via SERCA
6. RELAXATION
183
What is the cross-bridge cycling process?
1. ATP binds to the myosin head, causing the dissociation of myosin from actin.
2. ATP hydrolysis causes the myosin filament to change shape, the head is 'cocked'. Products of hydrolysis, ADP & inorganic phosphate remain bound.
3. Position of the myosin head (due to 'cocking') puts it in line with a new actin filament binding site. New cross-bridge is formed.
4. Myosin binds actin (p is released), the power stroke then generates force, actin towards the sarcomere centre.
5. Another ATP model binds myosin, causing dissociation from actin.
184
What does muscle tension depend on?
1. frequency of stimulation
| 2. Recruitment
185
What is a twitch?
A brief contraction - 1 single action potential
| Caused by the pulse of Ca2+ released into the cytoplasm.
186
What is tetanus?
A sustained period of contraction - many action potentials.
| Caused by the sustained release of Ca2+ from the SR into the cytoplasm.
187
What is recruitment?
The number of neurons active at 1 time regulates the number of fibres activated.
> Lower number of neurons active = lower contraction force.
> More neurons active = more force.
188
What factors affect the amount of force produced?
> Amount of force produced by each fibre.
> Number of fibres activated.
> Number of cross-bridges formed.
189
What does the function of muscles depend on?
1. Length of the muscle fibres - shorten u to 50%.
2. Number of muscle fibres (CSA) - directionally proportional to tension/force.
3. Arrangement of muscle fibres - pennate & parallel arrangements.
190
Concentric action
Shortening of the muscle.
191
Eccentric action
Lengthening of the muscle.
192
Isometric action
No change
193
Define agonist
acts concentrically (shortens)
194
Define antagonist
acts eccentrically (lengthens)
195
Define stabiliser
holds joint still
196
Define neutraliser
eliminated unwanted movement
197
Muscles associated with the shoulder joint
> Deltoid - Ant, Lat, Post - Fex, abd, Ex
> Biceps brachii - Ant - Flex
> Triceps brachii - Post - Ex
198
Muscles associated with the elbow joint
> Biceps brachii - Ant - Flex
| > Triceps brachii - Post - Ex
199
Muscles associated with the hip joint
> Iliopsoas - Ant - Flex
> Gluteus Maximus - Post - Ex
> Rectus femoris - Ant - Flex
> Hamstrings - Post - Ex
200
Muscles associated with the knee joint
> Quadriceps femoris - Ant - Ex
> Hamstrings - Post - Flex
> Gastronemius - Ant - Ex
201
Muscles associated with the ankle joint
> Tibialis anterior - Ant - dorsiflex
| > Triceps surae - Post - Plantarflex
202
Where does LOG fall in relation to the hip?
Posterior
203
Where does LOG fall in relation to the knee?
Anterior
204
Where does LOG fall in relation to the ankle?
Anterior
205
Early stance: hip
Moving from flexion to extension
Concentric: GM & H
Eccentric: I
206
Early stance: knee
Extension (locked for stability)
| Isometric: QF, H & G
207
Early stance: ankle
Moving from dorsiflexion to plantarflexion
Concentric: TS
Eccentric: TA
208
Mid stance: hip
Moving into extension
Concentric: GM & H
Eccentric: I
209
Mid stance: knee
Moving from extension to slight flexion
| Concentric: H & G
210
Mid stance: ankle
Moving into plantarflexion
| Concentric: TS
211
Late stance: hip
Extension
Concentric: GM & H
Eccentric: I
212
Late stance: knee
Extension
| Concentric: H & G
213
Late stance: ankle
Full plantar flexion
| Concentric: TS
214
Early Swing: hip
Moving from flexion to extension
Eccentric: GM & H
Concentric: I
215
Early Swing: knee
Flexion
| Concentric: H & G
216
Early Swing: ankle
In dorsiflexion
| Concentric: TA
217
Mid swing: hip
Flexion
Eccentric: GM & H
Concentric: I
218
Mid swing: knee
Flexion
| Concentric: H & G
219
Mid swing: ankle
In dorsiflexion
| Concentric: TA
220
Late swing: hip
Flexion
Eccentric: GM & H
Concentric: I
221
Late swing: knee
Moving from flexion to extension
| Concentric: QF
222
Late swing: ankle
In dorsiflexion
Concentric: TA
Isometric: TS
