Book 1 Flashcards
(326 cards)
1
Q
What is thermal expansion?
A
An increase in the volume of a liquid or matter in response to an increase in temperature
2
Q
What is thermal inertia?
A
A measure of the rate of change at which a material approaches the temperature of its surroundings
3
Q
When did DEFRA start producing Shoreline Management Plans?
A
The mid 1990s
4
Q
What areas does DEFRA’s Shoreline Management Plan cover?
A
The entire coastline of England and Wales
5
Q
What is the aim of DEFRA’s Shoreline Management plan?
A
To provide plans for managing the interface between land and sea in each of its areas
6
Q
What is the name for each area that DEFRA’s Shoreline Management Plan has divided the coastline of England and Wales into?
A
Cells
7
Q
What is intergenerational equity?
A
The principle of fairness between generations
8
Q
What is sustainable development?
A
Development that does not leave a degraded environment for future generations
9
Q
What is meant by the term actor?
A
A term which denotes a variety of individuals, social groups and institutions such as government, community groups, businesses or interntional organisations
10
Q
How long has the current interglacial stage lasted for?
A
Around 11,500 years
11
Q
Roughly how many glacial and interglacial stages have there been in the last 400,000 years?
A
About 4
12
Q
When was the term ecosystem coined?
A
In 1935
13
Q
What does the term ecosystem describe?
A
Interdependent groups of plants, animals and other organisations, as well as inanimate objects (eg water, soil, minerals)
14
Q
What is coastal squeeze?
A
When salt marshes are prevented from migrating inland away from the rising sea level
15
Q
What are the three possible strategies of DEFRA’s Shoreline Management Plan?
A
- hold the line (defense)
- managed retreat
- no active intervention
16
Q
What is a flyway?
A
The range of a migratory bird through which it moves annually from breeding grounds to non-breeding areas
17
Q
What is the definition of a hazard?
A
An event or happening that poses a threat to humans or to the environment
18
Q
What is the definition of risk?
A
The product of the probability (or likelihood) that a particular hazard will occur, and the severity of the potential harm
19
Q
What is the formula for calculating risk?
A
risk = probability that a hazard will occur x severity of the hazard
20
Q
What are the two international agreements for the conservation of migratory bird habitats?
A
- the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
- the African-Eurasian Bird Agreement (AEWA)
21
Q
Out of the CMS (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals) and the AEWA (African-Eurasian Bird Agreement), which is the larger?
A
The AEWA
22
Q
What are the regions covered by the AEWA (African-Eurasian Bird Agreement)?
A
- Africa
- the eastern Eurasian land mass
- the northern polar regions
23
Q
How many species does the AEWA (African-Eurasian Bird Agreement) seek to protect the habitats of?
A
Around 170 species
24
Q
How many signatory nations are there to the AEWA (African-Eurasian Bird Agreement)?
A
28
25
What does the term globalisation mean?
The geographical extensification and intensification of a social networks on a global scale
26
What does the term action at a distance mean?
Where an action in one geographical space influences events in another space
27
When was the term globalisation coined, and by whom?
- 1990
| - British sociologist Anthony Giddens
28
When was the term action at a distance coined, and by whom?
- 1987
| - French sociologist Bruno Latour
29
What is the term globalisation typically used by social scientists to refer to?
Economic, political and social interconnectivity
30
Does globalisation usually refer to human or ecological processes?
Human
31
What is the Sahel?
A semi-arid geographical zone of transition between the Sahara desert to the north and savannah grasslands to the south
32
How wide is the Sahel?
Up to 1000km in places
33
Where does the Sahel stretch from?
The Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea
34
What are some of the natural ways in which carbon dioxide can be removed from the atmosphere?
- photosynthesis
| - stored in carbon 'sinks' such as oceans and forests
35
What is a common resource?
A resource which a group of people enjoy, but which no one owns
36
What is meant by the term model?
A simplified representation of reality used by social and natural scientists to represent a complex phenomenon
37
What is meant by the term carrying capacity (with regards to land-based resources)?
The population of a species that can be supported without permanently damaging the ecosystem on which it depends
38
What does the tragedy of the commons model mean?
The mismatch between the individualism of economic rationality and the common or shared interests of the wider community
39
Who created the tragedy of the commons model?
Thomas Hardin
40
What is meant by the term carrying capacity (with regards to the global atmosphere)?
The quantity of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that can be naturally removed from the atmosphere by sinks so that no climate change takes place
41
What is the significant environmental risk according to the tragedy of commons model?
That individual actors are concerned only with their self-interest rather than the common good
42
What is the precautionary principle?
The principle that scientific uncertainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to protect the environment
43
According to Roberts & Parks (2007), what is climate change fundamentally an issue of?
Inequality
44
At which point in time did early industrialisation occur, and where?
- late 18-19th centuries
| - some parts of Europe and North America
45
What is meant by the term discourse?
A body of language that people use when communicating with each other
46
In the social sciences, what is meant by the term power?
The capability of an actor to achieve influence in support of its interests and objectives
47
What are the two ways in which we can conceive of power (with regards to social sciences)?
- possessing and deploying resources
| - shaping and promoting discourses
49
What are some of the ways that those who have power may attempt to perpetuate their position?
- discrediting evidence on climate change
- lobbying the media
- exerting political influence
50
What is G77?
| What is its purpose?
- the Group of 77 Developing Countries
- a group to lobby for wealthier nations to take the lead in cutting CO2 emissions and to provide finance and technology to help poorer states deal with climate change
51
How many member states does the G77 now have?
132
52
What is meant by the term 'values'?
What is of worth, merit or importance
52
How much of Europe's remaining healthlands are located in Britain?
44%
53
What is meant by the term agency?
The difference that a social actor makes to the world
54
What does the term biodiversity mean?
A measure of the number and variety of species within an area
55
What are the main reasons a species may become extinct?
- disease
- predators
- lack of food
- geological upheavals
- climate change
- human activity
56
How great is the loss over the 20th century of European heathlands due to human activity?
Around 70-90%
56
What is monoculture?
Growing a single crop over a large area
58
What is meant by the term mitigation strategy?
A strategy that deals with an environmental problem by addressing its causes
59
What is meant by the term ‘adaptation strategy’?
A strategy that deals with an environmental problem by addressing its effects
60
What is an ecological footprint?
The environmental impacts of consumption patterns on ecosystems
60
What is a futures market?
A market where participants agree to buy and sell products, at a price agreed today, on a stipulated date in the future
62
What is resilience?
The capacity of a system to recover from a disturbance
63
What is the main definition of the term sustainability?
Improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems
64
How is sustainability often conceptualised?
As a 3-legged stool, resting on environmental, social and economic supports
65
What happens if a system reaches its resilience threshold?
It will fail to readjust itself and will tip into an entirely different state
66
What is a tipping point?
A threshold that, if crossed, causes a system to change from one state to another
67
What is biochar?
A type of charcoal produced by the pyrolysis of trees, agricultural waste and other plant matter
68
What is pyrolysis?
Treatment of material at high temperatures in an oxygen-deprived environment
69
Other than biochar, what else does pyrolysis produce?
Liquids or gases which can be used for fuels
70
What is terra preta?
A Native American process similar to that which produces biochar
71
What is dark earth?
The carbon-enriched soil produced by terra preta (a process similar to that which produces biochar)
72
What is the benefit of dark earth?
It enables higher crop yields and supports enhanced biodiversity (which can, in turn, contribute to more resilient ecosystems)
73
Roughly how much of the UK's carbon emissions could biochar sequester?
8-9%
74
What is a biofuel?
A fuel which is derived from plant matter and is intended to be carbon neutral
75
What is one of the agricultural dangers of biofuels?
That they will increase monoculturing
76
What is land acquisition sometimes perjoratively referred to as?
Land grabbing
77
What is a property right?
A law, created by a government, on how individuals may come into ownership of property and how they may transfer it to others
78
Who were the two main British political philosophers?
- Thomas Hobbes
| - John Locke
79
In which period of time did the 'scramble for Africa' take place?
Between the 1880s and WWI
80
What is neo-colonialism?
The control of less developed countries through indirect means
81
Why are oil prices a factor in global food prices?
Because most food production systems are reliant on fossil-fuel driven mechanisms (eg fertilisers synthesised from fossil fuels, or food transported using fossil-fuel driven transport)
82
Of all global land acquisitions from 2000-2010, by sector, what is the largest use of the land?
Biofuel
83
Roughly how much of the land in Africa is held in formal title?
Around 10%
84
In sub-Saharan Africa, the land of how many small-scale farmers is threatened by global land acquisition?
Around half a billion
85
Globally, the land of how many small-scale farmers is threatened by global land acquisition?
1.5 billion
86
In smallholder communities, who is most likely to bear the burden of the loss of land?
Women
87
What year was the Mali Declaration formed?
2011
88
People from how many countries came together to form the Mali Declaration?
30
89
What is the aim of the Mali Declaration
To ".. defend food sovereignty, the commons and the rights of small-scale food providers to natural resources"
90
What percentage of the Earth's surface is water?
71%
91
What area of the Earth's surface do the oceans cover?
361 million square kilometres
92
When did the Deepwater Horizon disaster occur?
April 2010
93
By the time the Deepwater Horizon's wellhead was capped, how much oil was estimated to have been released into the ocean?
779 million litres or 4.9 million barrels
94
Roughly how much of the spilled oil was actually cleared from the ocean after the Deepwater Horizon incident?
Only 1/4
95
Roughly how much of the spilled oil from the Deepwater Horizon incident ended up as oil slicks or tar balls?
1/4 - which is 5 times the amount spilled by the Exxon Valdez tanker in 1989
96
What is the MMS? What does it do?
- the Minerals Management Service
| - regulates offshore drilling
97
When did the UN define the term biodiversity?
1992
98
What is meant by the term social values?
The beliefs and principles shared by people within a society
99
Approximately how many known living species of plants and animals are there?
1.75 million
100
What are the estimated figures of species not yet discovered?
From 10 million to 100 million
101
What is the definition of biodiversity as set by the UN in 1992?
The variability among all living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems
102
How many naturally occuring elements are there?
92
103
What is meant by the term species richness?
The number of species in a given area
104
What are the two types of animals and plants in the pelagic environment?
- those which drift with the ocean current
| - those which can swim (nekton)
105
Is measuring biodiversity by species richness alone good or bad?
Bad - it's not necessarily an accurate reflection of diversity as it doesn't include the relative amounts of each species, or how many species there are
106
What are the two categories which oceanic life can be divided into?
- the Benthic environment
| - the Pelagic environment
107
How is the diversity index formed?
By combining the measures of species richness and relative abundance
108
What does the term pelagic species refer to?
Animals and plants that can live anywhere in the open ocean
109
What does the term benthic species refer to?
Animals and plants that live on the sea floor
109
What are detritivores?
Organisms that eat dead organic matter
110
What does the term nekton mean?
Actively swimming aquatic organisms in a body of water
111
What are the three main criteria of the theory of evolution by natural selection?
- variation in the characteristics or traits shown by individual organisms within a population
- higher reproductive success of individuals as a direct result of the trait that is evolving
- the traits must be genetically determined and heritable
112
In an ecosystem, what are primary producers?
Plants, algae or bacteria which are capable of photosynthesis
113
What are herbivores?
Organisms that eat plants, algae or other primary producers
116
What are carnivores?
Animals and occasionally plants which eat animal tissue
116
What is a food web?
A set of connections between plants, animals, algae, bacteria and other organisms that is the basis of an ecosystem
118
What is a phytoplankton?
Plankton capable of photosynthesis
118
What is isostatic rebound?
The rise of land masses are the removal of the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period. Also known as post-glacial rebound
119
Whaat does multifunctionality mean in the context of environmental issues?
Areas which include different functions and uses and which belong to different economic and social areas
120
What is the current interglacial stage called?
The holocene
121
What is meant by the term risk?
Risk is the product of the probability that a particular hazard will occur, and the severity of the potential harm
122
Define uncertainty
A condition that arises when something cannot be precisely measured or understood
123
What is meant by the term holistic approach?
An approach based on the analysis of something as a whole integrated system
124
What is meant by the term globalisation?
The geographical extensification and intensification of social networks on a global scale
125
What is the UNDP HDI?
The Human Development Index, produced by the UN Development Program
126
What is the purpose of the UNDP HDI?
To measure three aspects of human existence:
- health
- education
- income
127
How is the UNDP HDI measured?
A country with a high level of human development will be close to 1, and a country with a low level of human development will be close to 0
128
What is urbanisation?
The percentage of the population living in urban areas
129
What is a cartogram?
A type of map where each country is shown in proportion for a specific issue
130
What is meant by the term carrying capacity?
The population of a species that can be supported without permanently damaging the ecosystem on which it depends
131
What is meant by the term uncertainty?
Uncertainty is a condition which arises when something cannot be preciseley measured or understood
132
What is meant by the term risk?
Risk is the product of the probability that a particular hazard will occur, and the severity of th potential harm
133
What is meant by the term value?
That which is of worth, merit or importance
134
What is meant by the term ‘power’?
The ability to influence the behaviour and actions of others
135
What is meant by the term agency?
The diffierence that a social actor makes in the world
136
What are the main risks arising from anthropognic climate change?
- Rising sea levels
- Intensification of extreme weather
- Changes in rainfall leading to droughts/floods
- Threats to endangered habitats
- Spread of infectious diseases
137
What is the Global Living Planet Index?
A way in which the biological health of the planet is measured
138
What is the base year for measurements of the Global Living Planet Index?
1970
139
Since 1970, what percentage a decline in the populations of species has there been?
28%
140
What are the ways in which individuals of a species can be killed?
- Disease
- Predators
- Lack of food
- Geological upheavals
141
Roughly what percentage of all the species which have ever lived are with us today?
2-4%
142
According to one estimate, roughly how many species are being lost per day?
150
143
What does the term 'taxonomy' mean?
The branch of biology concerned with the classification of organisms
144
Roughly how many species are there on Earth?
8.74 million (+/- 1.3 million)
145
What is the value of the loss that biodiversity provides to mankind?
Several trillion dollars
146
What is meant by the term 'approximation'?
A representation of a number that is not exact but accurate enough for a specific purpose
147
What is meant by the term 'environmental issue'?
An undesired condition or change in the environment that causes actors to engage publicly
148
What is special about the Gulf of Mexico?
It is one of the most productive bodies of water on Earth, both economically and ecologically
149
What is meant by the term 'driver'?
Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem
150
What are the possible types of threats to ecosystems?
- Physical
- Chemical
- Geological
- Biological/ecological
- Socio-economic
151
What is meant by the term 'cost-benefit analysis'?
A process for valuing and comparing the anticipated costs and benefits of an economic activity
152
What is meant by the term 'externality'?
A value that arises when one actor's actions affect the welfare of others in a way that is not reflected in market prices
153
What is a negative externality?
A cost which is imposed by one actor on another, for which no compensation is paid
154
What are positive externalities?
When one actor provides a benefit which another enjoys but does not pay for
155
What did Arthur Pigou, the British economist, propose with regards to externalities?
That those who produce negative externalities should be taxed, while those who provide positive externalities be subsidised
156
What is meant by the term 'citizen science'?
Research that is conducted, in whole or in part, by amateur/non-professional scientists
157
What is a 'public'?
A group of interested or troubled people who come together over objects of concern - a group that convenes to make an issue visible
158
What is a 'stakeholder'?
Any individual or group of people with an interest in a situation, event or project
159
What is meant by the term 'microbial community'?
A community of life forms that can only be viewed under a microscope, such as bacteria and microscopic fungi
160
What is the meaning of the term 'logical thinking'?
A way of linking ideas or statements in which the conclusion always follows from the premise according to a sequential chain of reasoning
161
What is meant by the term 'causal thinking'?
A way of thinking related to logical thinking which links events or activities according to sequences of cause and effect
162
What is meant by the term 'systems thinking'?
A way of thinking which considers the linkages and interactions between the elements of a situation and how they are part of an interconnected whole
163
What is meant by the term 'premise'?
A statement that is assumed to be true for the purposes of an argument
164
What is meant by the term 'argument'?
A verbal attempt to encourage the reader/listener to accept a particular belief or opinion by providing evidence and reasoning to demonstrate its validity
165
What are the three main points regarding logical thinking?
- It attempts to be objective (the truth of the conclusion should be apparent to all)
- It is necessary (i.e. the conclusion always follows from the phrase)
- It is sequentially structured ("if A, then B")
166
What is the definition of 'positive feedback'?
Feedback that serves to enhance change, so that the change is greater than it would have been without the feedback
167
What is the definition of 'negative feedback'?
Feedback that serves to moderate change, so that the change is less than it would have been without the feedback
168
What are the main characteristics of systems thinking?
- Their complexity
- Their interconnectedness
- Their emergent properties
- Their unpredictability
- Their involvement of many interested parties
169
What is the definition of 'reductionistic' thinking?
The analysis of complex things by breaking them down into less complex and more easily understood constituent parts
170
What is the principle that reductionism is based on?
The idea that a whole can be considered by examining its individual components
171
What is the definition of the term 'holism'?
The view that the whole is more than the sum of its parts
172
What are the four main components to an environmental issue?
- It refers to a condition or change in the environment
- This condition or change is undesired
- It involves actors/stakeholders
- It prompts actors to engage publicly
173
What is meant by the term 'all-affected principle'?
It is the idea that all who are affected by an action should participate in decisions on that action
174
Who coined the all-affected principle and when?
Tully, 2008
175
With regards to the environment, what is a 'private good'?
A good that is rival and executable
176
With regards to environmental goods, what is meant by the term 'rival' good?
A good is rival when consumption by one person reduces what is left for others
177
What is meant by the term 'public good'?
A good that is non-rival and non-excludable
178
With regards to environmental goods, what is meant by the term 'excludable' good?
A good is excludable when the owner of a good can legally prevent others from enjoying the benefit of the good
179
Give an example of something which is a 'private good'.
Things which can be provided by nature, such as the atmosphere and oceans
180
Give an example of something which is a private good.
Offshore fossil fuel resources
181
What are the three main things which must be considered when trying to calculate the cost of any damage humans have done to an ecosystem?
- The diversity of species within an ecosystem
- The interconnectivity of the species within that ecosystem
- The resilience of the ecosystem
182
What is meant by the term 'use values'?
Values that arise from the actual use of a particular environmental good
183
What is meant by the term 'non-use values'?
Values that do not arise from the use of an environmental good
184
What is meant by the term 'total economic value'?
The sum total of the use and non-use values of an environment for present and future generations
185
What do environmental economists Paolo Nunes and Jeroen van den Bergh argue with regards to calculating the cost of harm done by humans to an ecosystem?
That it gets progressively more difficult the more significant the disturbance and the larger the area the ecosystem covers
186
What are the three subdivision types of use values?
- Direct use values
- Indirect use values
- Option use values
187
Give an example of a direct use value
The enjoyment or satisfaction received directly from a forest, such as timber, fruits or nuts
188
Give an example of an indirect use value
The value of a forest in recreation, or in sequestering carbon
189
Give an example of an option use value
A possible direct use value for the future, such as plants growing in a forest which could have medicinal use
190
What are the two subtypes of non-use values?
- Existence values
| - Bequest values
191
Give an example of an existence value
The values an individual assigns to an environment even if they do not, have not, and never will use it (eg many people derive satisfaction from knowing that the Amazon rainforest exists)
192
What important concept is encompassed in the idea of existence values?
The rights of species to flourish, irrespective of what humans think
193
Give an example of a bequest value
The rights of future generations to experience and enjoy nature
194
What is meant by the term 'total economic value' (TEV)?
The sum total of the use and non-use values of an environmentat for present and future generations
195
Why is knowing the total economic value (TEV) important?
Because it is an essential part of cost-benefit analysis
196
What was the purpose of the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment?
To calculate the value of the entirety of the Earth's ecosystems
197
What was the aim of the UK National Ecosystem Assessment?
To put a value on the totality of environmental goods in the UK
198
What were the chief findings of the UK National Ecosystem Assessment?
- Inland wetlands bring benefits to water quality worth up to £1.5 billion p.a.
- Pollinators are worth more than £430 million p.a.
- The benefits of living near rivers/coasts/wetlands are worth more than £1.3 billion p.a.
- The health benefits of living in view of a green space are worth up to £300pp p.a.
199
What does the acronym TEEB stand for?
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
200
What is TEEB?
A study done by the UN to try and assess the economic damage of human activity on the natural world
201
What was the figure which TEEB estimated the damage of human activity to the natural world to be?
Between $2-4 trillion
202
What is meant by the term 'instrumental value'?
Valuations of the environment for humans
203
What is meant by the term 'intrinsic value'?
The value that nature has in and of itself
204
What is meant by the term 'well-being interest'?
Those elements that contribute to a "good life"
205
What are the elements that contribute to 'well-being interest'?
- Basic material goods
- Freedom
- Health
- Good social relations
- Security
- Spiritual experience
206
What is the key distinction between use values and non-use values?
Use values are those which arise from the actual use of a particular environmental good, whereas non-use values do not arise from the use of an environmental good
207
What is the key distinction between instrumental values and intrinsic values?
Instrumental values are valuations of the environment for humans as a means to an end. Intrinsic values are those which nature has in and of itself
208
What is meant by the term 'succession'?
A natural, directional change in the species composition of an ecological community over time
209
What is meant by the term 'primary succession'?
Succession which begins with bare ground
210
What is meant by the term 'secondary succession'?
Succession which begins with disturbed ground
211
Out of primary succession and secondary succession, which is the more common?
Secondary succession
212
What is central to the evolution of an ecosystem?
Competition
213
What is meant by the term 'competitor species'?
Those that are good at capturing resources but are intolerant of disturbances
214
What are some traits of competitor species?
- Often tall
| - High growth rates
215
What is meant by the term 'ruderal species'?
Plants that flourish in temporary or disturbed habitats
216
What are some traits of ruderal species?
- Short-lived
| - High growth rates
217
What is a relict?
A surviving remnant of a natural phenomenon or ecosystem from the past
218
What is special about Sites of Specific Scientific Interest (SSSI)?
They are protected in the UK because of their importance for nature
219
What is meant by the term 'habitat fragmentation'?
Areas of natural habitat which become isolated within land dominated by human activities such as intensive agriculture or urban development
220
At which stage of succession are fens found?
Intermediate - between shallow lake to woodland
221
What is meant by the term 'edge effect'?
Changes which occur at a boundary of two or more habitats
222
What are the names of the four surviving fen sites?
- Wicken Fen
- Woodwalton Fen
- Chippenham Fen
- Holme Fen
223
What is the main reason for loss of fens?
Land drainage and conversion to intensively farmed land
224
What is meant by the term 'existence values'?
Values that an individual will assign to an environment even if they have no and never will use it
225
What is meant by the term 'bequest values'?
The rights of future generations to experience and enjoy nature
226
Define the term 'value'.
A value is something of worth, merit or importance
227
What is meant by the term 'invasive species'?
A species that is introduced by humans, either intentionally or uninentionally, to a new habitat, or a species that invades by natural means
228
What are the main ways by which an invasive species can threaten habitats?
- Competing with/displacing native species
- Infecting/killing native species
- Destroying habitat vital to the support of the native species
- Causing economic/social problems
229
What is meant by the term 'biological control'?
When the predator species from the native country is introduced in order to try and control an invasive species
230
What is meant by the term 'fecund'?
The ability of a species to produce offspring
231
What is the meaning of the term 'keystone species'?
One which supports a disproportionate number of other species
232
What is meant by the term 'reintroduction'?
The restoring of a species that has become extinct in the host ecosystem
233
Since the mid-twentieth century, roughly what percentage of common fish have seen declines?
90-95%
234
How many 'dead zones' have formed in coastal areas in recent decades?
Over 400
235
What are 'Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)'?
Toxic substances that, when released in to the environment, remain intact for long periods of time and accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms
236
Since 1950, roughly how much has the global biomass of plankton decreased?
By around 40%
237
What is meant by the term 'background extinction rate'?
The average rate at which species extinction has occurred between mass extinctions
238
What is meant by the term 'mass extinction'?
When a large number of species become extinct over a relatively short period of geological time
239
Over what percentage of a species must become extinct in a relatively short period of time for it to be considered a mass extinction event?
75%
240
What is the average background extinction rate?
Around 10% of species dying off within a 1 million year period
241
How many mass extinction events have there been?
Five
242
Approximately how much faster than the background extinction rate is the current extinction rate for birds and mammals?
Around 100 to 1000 times higher
243
What is meant by the term 'biosphere'?
The part of Earth capable of supporting life
244
Who coined the term 'Gaia theory'?
James Lovelock
245
What is meant by the term 'Gaia theory'?
Biological life has an integral role in sustaining Earth as an environment fit for living things
246
What is the definition of the term 'homeostasis'?
The tendency of a life form to regulate its internal conditions to maintain health and stability in response to external changes
247
What is the definition of capitalism?
An economic system where private actors own and control property with their interests, and demand and supply freely set prices in markets
248
Is capitalism an example of a negative or positive feedback system?
Positive
249
What is meant by the term 'industrialism'?
The application of science and technology to the extraction of natural resources and to production processes
250
What is meant by the term 'light greens'?
People who adhere to the idea that sustainable capitalism is possible
251
What is meant by the term 'dark greens'?
People who believe that industrial capitalism are unavoidably unsustainable and should be replaced with more environmentally friendly alternatives
252
What is the definition of a 'food web'?
A set of connections between plant, animals, algae, bacteria and other organisms that is the basis of an ecosystem
253
What is another name for a food web?
A 'trophic web'
254
What is meant by the term 'terrestrial biodiversity'?
The variation of life forms within a given ecosystem that inhabit the land
255
What is meant by the term 'concession'?
Temporary rights granted by a government for an activity in a certain area for a fixed period of time
256
What is the definition of a 'system'?
A network, or combination, of interacting and interrelated elements that are linked together in a way that forms a collective unit
257
What are the key characteristics of 'systems'?
- Their complexity
- Their interconnectedness
- Their emergent properties
- Their unpredictability
- The involvement of many interested parties
258
What amount of water, per person, per day, is estimated to be required to meet basic human needs?
Between 20 - 50 litres (per person, per day)
259
According to the Environment Agency (2008), roughly how much water do people in England and Wales use (per person, per day)?
About 150 litres
260
Globally, roughly how many children under the age of 5 die per day due to waterborne disease?
3000 - 5000
261
What is the meaning of the term 'opportunity cost'?
The value of an alternative that is foregone or sacrificed
262
What is an example of an 'opportunity cost'?
Time spent collecting water - in many countries, much time is spent doing this, rather than family life or education
263
Roughly how much of the Earth's surface do freshwater ecosystems cover?
1%
264
Roughly how much of known biodiversity do freshwater ecosystems support?
12%
265
How many Sites of Special Scientific Interest are there in the UK?
Over 7000
266
According to Grey and Sadoff, what are the three most important factors regarding achieving and sustaining water security?
- The hydrologic environment
- The socio-economic environment
- The future environment
267
What is the definition of the term 'infiltration'?
The downward flow of water through land surface into sub-surface areas
268
What are the four types of ecosystem services provided by fresh water?
- Provisioning services (products obtained from ecosystems, e.g. wood, food)
- Regulating services (benefits from ecosystem processes, e.g. climate regulation)
- Cultural services (non-material benefits, e.g. recreation, education)
- Supporting services (underpin all categories, includes things like soil formation)
269
In hydrology, what is meant by the term 'residence time'?
The average time that water stays in one reservoir before moving to another reservoir
270
Which has the larger residence time, smaller or larger reservoirs?
Larger
271
What is meant by the term 'hydrosphere'?
The parts of the Earth’s surface containing water (oceans, rivers, lakes) as well as water in the atmosphere
272
What are the 8 reservoirs of the water cycle?
- Ice and snow
- Soil moisture
- Underground water
- Lakes
- Plants and animals
- Rivers
- Atmosphere
- Oceans
273
Of all the reservoirs in the water cycle, which has the shortest residence time and what is that time?
- The atmosphere
| - Ten days
274
What is the global distribution of the world's water?
- 97% oceans
- 2.5% freshwater
- 0.4% surface/atmospheric water
275
How much of the total volume of water on Earth is required to meet human needs?
1%
276
What is meant by the term 'Sustainable Urban Drainage System'?
A set of management practices, control structures and strategies designed to drain surface water effectively and sustainably and minimise impact on watercourses
277
What is a swale?
A shallow grassy depression which allows road run-off to gradually soak into the ground
278
What are the four main components of a Water Cycle Study (WCS)?
- Assessment of water supply
- Sewage disposal
- Flood risk management
- Surface water drainage capacity
279
What is meant by the term 'recharge'?
The downward movement of water from the surface that replenishes groundwater reserves
280
What is the definition of the term 'aquifer'?
An underground layer of porous rock filled with water
281
What is meant by the term 'water table'?
The level below which soil or rock is saturated with water
282
What is the level of the water table dependent on?
The rate of recharge and the quantity of water withdrawn from wells
283
What is key to replenishing surface and groundwater supplies?
Precipitation
284
What are the two terms by which water sources can be classified?
- Improved
| - Unimproved
285
What types of water source are classed as 'unimproved'?
- Rivers/lakes
| - Wells or springs without structure to prevent them from contamination
286
What are the average uses of water in England?
- Personal washing
- Toilet flushing
- Clothes washing
- Washing up
- Outdoor
- Other
- Kitchen
287
How much of the UK's water supply is considered to be 'improved'?
100%
288
What are the three main use categories of direct uses of water?
- Domestic use
- Agricultural use
- Industrial use
289
What is meant by the term 'physical water scarcity'?
An actual shortage of water relative to demand; occurs when available resources are insufficient to meet all demands
290
What is meant by the term 'economic water scarcity'?
A lack of the human, institutional and financial resources required to use an available water supply
291
What is an 'EIA'?
Environmental Impact Assessment
292
When did EIAs (Environmental Impact Assesment) become part of European law?
1985
293
What is meant by the term 'virtual water'?
The total volume of water required to produce a commodity
294
What other term is 'virtual water' known by?
Embedded water
295
What is the virtual water cost of producing one kilo of wheat?
1300 litres of water
296
What is the meaning of the term 'water footprint'?
A measure of the fresh water used in the production of goods and services, including direct and indirect use
297
What is the meaning of the term 'ecological footprint'?
A way to quantify the total human impact on an environment, using land area as a basic measurement
298
What are the four elements involved in calculating an ecological footprint?
- Land occupied by buildings, roads, infrastructure
- Land to supply food and water to inhabitants
- Land to supply structural materials, e.g. timber
- Land needed to absorb CO2 produced from fossil fuel consumption
299
What is the meaning of the term 'flocculation'?
The process of forming an aggregated (flocculent) mass which can then be removed from water as sludge
300
What are the main stages of water treatment?
- Screening and settlement to remove particles
- Flocculation and sedimentation to encourage formation of clumps to be removed as sludge
- Filtration
- Chlorination
301
Where in the world, aside from the Middle East, might you now find water desalination plants?
- California
- Spain
- Australia
- England
302
How many litres of water does it take to produce every 1 litre of water on a shelf?
Three
303
To produce a year's worth of water bottles in the US uses how much oil and energy?
Enough to fuel a million cars
304
What percentage of plastic bottles end up in landfill?
80%
305
What is meant by the term 'ecological sanitation'?
An approach to sanitation that aims to use human excreta as a resource, minimise environmental contamination and prevent waste
306
What is meant by the term 'appropriate technology'?
A technology that is culturally acceptable and financially and environmentally sustainable
307
What is the meaning of the term 'water pollution'?
A change in water quality, due to human activity, that has an adverse effect on people or the environment
308
What is 'water quality' defined as?
The physical, chemical and biological properties of fresh water
309
What is the definition of the term 'eutrophication'?
An accumulation of plant nutrients in fresh water leading to a rapid growth in plant life
310
What are the subdivisions of pesticides?
- Insecticides
- Herbicides
- Fungicides
- Rodenticides
- Molluscicides
311
What are the main types of water pollutants?
- Organic material
- Living organisms
- Plant nutrients
- Pesticides & other toxic chemicals
- Sediments & suspended solids
312
What are the six key issues with regards to water supply?
- Access
- Quantity
- Quality
- Reliability
- Affordability
- Ease of management of the supply
313
What types of cost does full cost pricing include?
- Environmental and economic externalities
- Opportunity costs
- Capital charges
- Operation & maintenance
314
What is meant by the term 'ripairan system' (in relation to water)?
Riparian owners own the river banks (i.e. the land which the water flows through)
315
What is meant by the term 'public allocation' (in respect to water)?
Allocation of water rights is administered by legal process
316
What is the meaning of the term 'prior appropriation rights' (with regards to water)?
The right to water is acquired by use over time - i.e. if you have used the supply in the past, you have a right to continue to use it
317
What are the four "Dublin Principles" (relating to water)?
- Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource
- Water development/management should involve users, planners and policy makers at all levels
- Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water
- Water has an economic value and should be recognised as an economic good
318
What is meant by the term 'total sovereignty' with regards to water ownership?
The principle that each state uses the water in its territory without concern for other riparian users
319
What is meant by the term 'community of interest' with regards to water ownership?
The principle that no single riparian user can block the action of any other
320
What is meant by the term 'limited sovereignty' with regards to water ownership?
International rivers should be used by different states on an equitable basis
321
What are the Helsinki Rules?
Principles drawn up to guide water use between two or more countries
322
What are the 3 key areas covered by the European Union's "Water Framework Directive"?
- Ecology
- Economy
- Governance
323
What is meant by the term 'Integrated Water Resource Management'?
A process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources
324
What are the main benefits of dams?
- Improve water supply
- Generate electricity
- Control downstream flooding
- Assist river navigation
- Opportunities for leisure and fisheries
325
What are some of the main environmental impacts of dams?
- Riverbed erosion
- Damage to downstream ecosystems
- Sediment accumulation behind the dam
- Damage to fish stocks
- Reservoir-induced seismic activity
- Permanent flooding of land
- Displacement of peoples
326
What are some of the negative impacts of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze river?
- >1.2 million people were displaced
| - 13 cities, 140 towns and 1350 villages were flooded
