Britain and the French Wars, 1793-1815

Question 1

How would you describe Wellington’s character?

Answer 1

• A strict disciplinarian
• Had a keen eye for slackness, and regarded his troops as ‘the scum of the earth’ and he effectively fixed them and turned them into very fine men
• Had a keen eye for detail such as battlefield and timing
• He also respected his troops and made sure they were fed and equipped, but believed in feeding them from Britain through the Navy instead of living off of the land and alienating the locals

Question 2

Prelude to the Peninsular War

Answer 2

In 1807, Napoleon tried to strangle Britain’s economy by imposing the ‘continental system’ which meant the severing of trade agreements with Britain

Only Portugal agreed to keep trade w/ Britain and NB sent General Junot to occupy Portugal to force it into line

In Spring of 1808, NB also occupied their allied Spain to “protect it from Britain” (NB did not like Spain’s rulers, the Bourbons)

The Spanish saw NB as an antichrist figure and Spanish/Portuguese forces rose up with the aid of Britain.

Question 3

When did Wellesley land in Portugal?

Answer 3

July 1808

Question 4

Battle of Vimeiro

Answer 4

21st August

Ended up in a British victory over General Junot’s troops.

At the Convention of Sintra, Sir Hew Dalrymple who was in charge of forces in Portugal allowed Junot’s forces to go back to France in British ships and keep their loot. This was disastrous and scandalous, and he never held command again.

Question 5

John Moore’s campaign in Spain

Answer 5

Led a 20,000 strong army from Lisbon to Salamanca

  - The troops were inexperienced, but had a good quality of training compared to the Spanish troops

He was joined by another British army from Corunna, and planned to attack Sault’s II corps in the north, possibly threatening supply and communications to France. However, this was hampered as Napoleon was advancing rapidly, causing a retreat 250 miles back towards Corunna.

British discipline, except for the rearguard light brigade led by ‘Black Bob’ Crawford had weakened – drunkenness and looting

Moore had diverted troops away from Madrid but got killed in the process

Question 6

Role of the rearguard light brigade in reaching Corunna and weaponry

Answer 6

Soldiers of Britain’s 95th Rifles were crucial, one of the few regiments on either side armed with rifles.

• They had worn green for better concealment
• Armed with the Baker Rifle

  - More accurate than the 'Brown Bess' musket due to the spiral grooves in the barrel
  - Shot 2 rounds/min at 200-400 yards
  - But slower than the BB, which shot 3 rounds/min

Question 7

When was the Battle of Talavera?

Answer 7

July 1809

Question 8

Casualties at the Battle of Talavera

Answer 8

British – 5,363

Spanish – 1,101

French – 7,268

Question 9

What did the Battle of Talavera demonstrate?

Answer 9

• Wellesley had a smaller army (20,000), compared to the French 50,000, but showed that it was a force to be reckoned with. He was ennobled as Viscount Wellington for his victory at Talavera
• Also showed great skill and effectiveness with the 95th Rifles and the Baker Rifle

Question 10

Ineffectiveness of the Spanish

Answer 10

• Ill-equipped at Talavera, also let down by poor leadership, but despite this Wellesley/Wellington found a way to secure victory
• The Spanish King had abdicated so a Supreme Junta had taken control but had sustained heavy losses at:

  The Battle of Ocana and Alba de Tormes all in November

This left southern Spain vulnerable to attack as the Junta’s plans to retake Madrid had failed. Even Wellington did not want to commit men to their attacks in support.

Question 11

The Lines of Torres Vedras

Answer 11

Under construction for more than a year by Portuguese and British forces

• Located at the Lisbon peninsula protecting the city.
• This was very effective leadership and ingenuity from Wellington, as this allowed him to protect his supply lines from the Navy and he knew that Massena could not break through the tough fortifications

Consisted of:

  - 100+ forts
  - 30,000 men
  - 250 guns

• Wellington had also shown great leadership by cutting out slackness and disciplining officers and soldiers for spending too much time in brothels or theatres.
• The British had also imposed a scorched earth policy in the surrounding areas to pillage anything of use to the French, like food/aid
• Guerillas also played a key role here by attacking French supply columns

Question 12

Impact of the scorched earth policy in Lisbon

Answer 12

+

Allowed Wellington to strip the countryside to starve Massena’s army

–

Greatly impacted the surrounding peasants, who many died from starvation as their farms were burned.

Overall very effective though, as Massena was out of food and had no prospect of support, so retreated

Question 13

Battle of Fuentes de Onoro

Answer 13

Wellington had driven Massena away from Lisbon, north of Portugal to the Spanish border at Almeida, which he seized.

• Massena attempted to take Ciudad Rodrigo just to the south of Almeida
• The 7th Division of the Anglo-Portuguese had been caught off guard and almost out-flanked, but a withdrawal in square formation ended in bayonet fighting and A-P victory over Massena.
• Not the outcome Wellington would have wanted, as the British were poor and allowed the French to escape. However, Wellington’s leadership and his discipline could be addressed as a reason for victory

Question 14

What is a square formation?

Answer 14

Used commonly by the British and was effective against cavalry if used properly. Requires good timing of firing to ensure that cavalry are within good shooting range. Was quite slow and some soldiers would have to walk backwards.

Question 15

Failure of Marshal Massena

Answer 15

• Lost 25,000 men in Portugal
• Lost Almeida to the British at Fuentes de Onoro
• Brought his mistress on campaign

Recalled to France never to hold senior command again. Replaced with Marmont

Question 16

The impact of guerrilla warfare on the war in Spain

Answer 16

Ex-soldiers and civilian militias launched guerrilla warfare against the hated French invaders which tied up 10s of 1000s of troops:

  - Ambushed, hit and runs
  - Aided by British, who supplied them with money and supplied
  - Took much of the countryside

Notable figures:

“El Empecinado” and his band of 6,000 north of Madrid

Espoz y Mina who captured convoys between Burgos and Bayonne, a crucial French supply line in the north

The guerrilla war was brutal, with the guerrillas torturing some of the French before killing them

More French had casualties by guerrillas compared to the allied forces:

Guerrilla warfare – 76,650
In battle against allies –45,000

Question 17

Impact of Napoleon’s decision to withdraw troops from Spain

Answer 17

Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 with 500,000 men and withdrew many of the best troops from Spain to aid this attack. This left the French in Spain overstretched and Wellington adopted a more offensive approach, as he was not outnumbered for the first time in this campaign.

Question 18

Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo

Answer 18

19th January 1812

Involved bringing up siege guns and artillery to blast breaches in fortress walls

Question 19

Siege of Badajoz

Answer 19

6th April 1812

Like Ciudad Rodrigo, the British also had to make use of artillery and siege guns to break through the toughly fortified town.

Strong leadership had to be shown as soldiers’ discipline fell and many went on a rampage of raping and looting, killing around 100 Spanish civilians. Staunch leaders like Thomas Picton restored discipline and many were flogged but not hanged. Wellington’s leniency could have been a result of the loss of thousands of men which hurt him. His empathy in this sense earned him a great deal of respect

Question 20

Battle of Salamanca

Answer 20

22nd July 1812

• Wellington had chosen a higher ground on a hill with a soft ridge to conceal his troops from view
• Marmont made a mistake as he saw a dust cloud in the distance and thought it was Wellingtons army in retreat
• Marmont had sent his 7th division to cut off this retreat which fell into a trap. Wellington had given the command himself to Packenham’s support division in the west to attack the 7th division.

Question 21

Casualties at Salamanca

Answer 21

French total – 13,000 (25%)

Coalition total – 5,173

Question 22

The Battle of Vitoria

Answer 22

21st June 1813

• Strong army – 100,000 more soldiers, stronger, more battle-hardened and with better medical services and more weapons/cavalry
• The French were also overstretched and tied down as Napoleon withdrew troops to fight Germany and they were tied down by guerillas. Spanish forces also helped Wellington as they had better knowledge of the terrain
• The French had fallen back to Vitoria in the north from Valladolid
• Sound strategy and timing had caused a French retreat as the allied closed in on Vitoria. They could not retreat northward to France because of Graham’s division, so had to retreat eastward, which ended in chaos as millions of francs from the treasury were abandoned.

This battle had liberated Spain

Question 23

Prelude to the Hundred Days offensive

Answer 23

Napoleon had been exiled to the island of Elba, but in Feb 1815, he escaped and formed an army. He entered France as emperor again and thus began the War of the Seventh Coalition

Question 24

Battles of Quatre Bras and Ligny

Answer 24

16th June 1815

Battlefield now between French and Dutch border.

• French and British troops clash at Quatre Bras, with the British narrowly holding their ground
• French and Prussian troops clash at Ligny, defeating the Prussians who withdraw. Marshal Grouchy is sent to tie down Blucher’s Prussians, while Napoleon focused on Wellington’s forces at Waterloo. Blucher told Wellington that he would come to support him, so Wellington decides to fight.

Question 25

Battle of Waterloo

Answer 25

18th June 1815 **The battlefield** - British hidden behind a gentle ridge to protect them from French cannon fire - The British position is anchored at three positions: - Hougoumont (British left) - La Haye Saint (centre) - Papelotte (British right) - These positions were fortified **The battle** - The French began by attacking Hougoumont, but they are repelled and all the intruders are killed. This is important as holding these positions are key. - The heavy brigade effectively stop an infantry charge in the centre, but charge too far and are counter attacked and sustain heavy losses - Ney had assumed command after Napoleon was taken ill, but poorly squandered the cavalry - The battle was in the balance, as Blucher's forces had taken Plancenoit, but the French had also taken La Haye Sainte, and launched artillery into the British, inflicting casualties. - Napoleon committed his feared Imperial Guard to charge the centre, uphill, to break British lines. The Imperial Guard retreats. - Wellington then orders a full advance, causing a general retreat. **Allied victory**

Question 26

Napoleon's mistake at Waterloo

Answer 26

He ordered his troops to wait for 3-4 hours to allow the ground to dry – this would make movement easier. The battle would start at around 11.00 **This gave Blucher time to reach Plancenoit behind French lines. Napoleon was greatly outnumbered with a combined Anglo-Prussian force.**

Question 27

Ney's mistake at Waterloo

Answer 27

Thinking that Wellington's forces were retreating, he committed all of the French cavalry charge to take them down. However, they had not retreated and formed impregnable square formations. The cavalry could not break it, nor did they successfully disable the British cannons by spiking the firing holes which could have rendered them useless for the rest of the battle. He also did not support the charge with infantry or artillery. Ney's mistake arguably cost Napoleon the battle. He was tried and executed as a result.

Question 28

The navy in 1793

Answer 28

- The navy had been using press gangs to find conscripts, meaning there were likely to be unwilling sailors in the navy. - Many ships of the line were old and not maintained - 135 ships of the line and 133 frigates (increased to 202:277 in 1802) - Had quality admirals like Jervis, Nelson, Samuel Hood, and Richard Howe - There was discontent among the navy, with mutinies at Spithead and Nore.

Question 29

Role of the navy

Answer 29

Protect the British Isles from invasion Protect commerce routes Interfere with French sea trade by blockading French ports

Question 30

Nelson profile

Answer 30

**Famous battles** 1797 - Cape St. Vincent 1798 - Battle of the Nile **Characteristics** Charismatic, had loyal fleets **Tactics** Believed in fast gunner and soldiers fighting w/ sailors, and boarding of enemy ships. He believed in line tactics

Question 31

The Battle of the Nile

Answer 31

1798 Used daring tactics to destroy/capture 13 of 17 French ships docked at Aboukir Bay in Egypt. Half of the ships went between the coast and the ships, so they could fire from both sides. Made him a national hero

Question 32

Nelson's tactics

Answer 32

Nelson preferred to break enemy lines, going against convention of attacking in a uniform line – which maintains structure. He showed how he also likes to board enemy ships at Cape St. Vincent

Question 33

Technical advances in the Navy, 1793-1815

Answer 33

Coppering – covering the wooden hull with copper sheets. Made ships faster as it prevented barnacles and creatures from burrowing in the hull

Question 34

Diet and condition of sailors

Answer 34

Usually quite poor. Consisted of mouldy biscuits, salt beef, foul drinking water and rum or brandy. On long voyages, many became ill with scurvy as a result. Admirals like Collingwood went weeks without a proper night sleep

Question 35

Napoleon's plan for a cross channel invasion

Answer 35

March 1805 Napoleon wanted to divert ships from the channel and from around Ireland in order to land a flotilla across the channel into Britain. French ships would draw them away by sailing towards the West Indies and then returning to take down what was left of the Channel fleet before the chasing British fleet returned. The plan failed, as Admiral Calder had intercepted the ships at Cape Finisterre, and they were forced back to Cadiz.

Question 36

The Battle of Trafalgar

Answer 36

21 October 1805 Led by Nelson and Collingwood 27 Brit SotL against 33 French SotL and outgunned **Tactics** - Two line formations led by the two admirals - Nelson preferred to break the enemy lines head on, instead of parallel This meant that for the entire approach, they would be under heavy fire, but once they broke the Franco-Spanish lines, it would be split into three - Superior British fast gunnery was key in ensuring victory as the battle occurred in very close quarters, for example with HMS *Victory* and *Temeraire* against the *Redoubtable* **Result** *British victory* and Nelson's death. He was easily visible to snipers due to his uniform. This could be considered a weakness in his very confident and glorified demeanour

Question 37

The war on French trade

Answer 37

The British had maintained naval superiority, having around 21,000 vessels compared to the few hundred French by 1815. French manufacturers also relied on British colony imports, like tea and coffee and spices. The navy had blockaded French ports, stopped and searched ships coming to France from the US, so this made imposing sanctions on the British difficult.