Britain Transformed - The Welfare State

Question 1

Welfare Provision

Answer 1

Welfare is aid given in the forms of money or necessities to those in need, usually the old, th young, the sick and the poor
From 1908, the Liberal Government inaugurated a huge expansion of state provided welfare
These new support mechanisms we’re open to all who qualified
However, these reforms were far from universal
The situation in 1918 cannot be described as true welfare state and can, at best be called a ‘social service state’
The adoption of Keynesian economic and collectivism meant that the Second World War caused a comprehensive and sustained shift in welfare provision
However, even as the welfare state was being forged, there were concerns about the effect that this provision would have on moral fibre and independence
By 1979, with a large and expensive system, these concerns had developed into criticisms

Question 2

Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

Answer 2

There were many different aspects of welfare provision in this time period, however they centred around three main areas:
- Housing
- Unemployment
- Pensions

Question 3

Housing Back Ground

Answer 3

Local and national governments had made efforts to improve housing since the mid-Victorian Era
There were concerns that slums promoted crime and disease
A lot of slum clearance has taken place before 1918

Question 4

Improvements in Living Standards 1918-1919

Answer 4

A major improvement in urban living standards was achieved by the introduction of mains water and sewage to homes
- as late as 1899 only 1.4% of housed in Manchester had flushing toilets, compared to 98% in 1914
The government has promised returning soldiers a ‘home for heroes’ and the 1919 House and Town Planning Act aimed to empower local authorities to use central government funds to meet housing needs

Question 5

Housing During the Recession

Answer 5

It was estimated that over 600,000 houses were needed for the housing programme, however only 213,000 were built before the recession hit
The housing shortage grew worse as a result, with an estimated shortfall of 822,000 houses in 1923
A consequence of this was that young married couples had to liven with their parents

Question 6

Conservative and Labour Housing Acts

Answer 6

Conservative and Labour Housing Acts in 1923 and 1924 sought to use subsidies to encourage the construction of housing
These Acts, together with a further Labour Act in 1930, promoted house building
Between 1919 and 1940, 4 million homes were built
Public funds were used to relocate people living in overcrowded areas and most of the public sector houses were in larger cities, such as Manchester and Liverpool
Some projects, however, were not well thought out
A lack of jobs at the huge Becontree Estate nearly led to a disaster until the Ford factory was built nearby in 1931

Question 7

The Issue of Unemployment

Answer 7

The most pressing problem for inter-war governments was unemployment
Unemployment never fell between 1 million (10%) and peaked at over 3 million in the early 1930s
Governments wanted to support the unemployment but also wanted to balance the books
A self-funding National Insurance Scheme was seen as the ideal solution and was implemented in 1911
However, the 3.5 million returning troops were not eligible
A difficult situation was developing
- it would take time to redesign the scheme but this would leave men who had fought in the First World War relying on the Poor Law
The only alternative would be to hand out dole money
This would be paid out of general taxation and people feared this would encourage reliance on the state

Question 8

Solutions to Unemployment

Answer 8

The short term solution was to issue dole money but under a different name
- ‘the out of work donation’ (1918-1920)
This was issued to returning troops and the unemployed until they found work
Although it was meant to be temporary, it set two important precedents:
- the government has a duty to support the unemployed
- it provided more money for dependants
At the same time, a new Unemployment Insurance Act was developed to offer a longer-term solution
The idea was that increasing the number of workers covered by insurance would make the scheme self-funding

Question 9

The Issues With Solutions to Unemployment

Answer 9

Unfortunately, the new Unemployment Insurance Act was passed in 1920, just as the affects of the post-war slump were talking hold
By 1921, the government was forced to make extended payments (in reality dole payments disguised as insurance)
The government did this as they feared a revolution
Over 2.4 million workers had taken part in strikes in 1919
However, attempts were made to limit the expense of this new system
- a ‘seeking work test’ was implemented in March 1921
By March 1930, 3 million claims had been rejected

Question 10

The Unemployment Act and Final Solution

Answer 10

The Unemployment Act separated the treatment of ‘insurable’ from long term unemployment
Part I of the Act provided 26 weeks of benefit payments to the 14.5 million unemployed workers who paid into this scheme
Part II created an Unemployment Assistant Board to help those with no insurance benefits
By 1937, the UAB had helped 1 million people
The government had not been able to solve unemployment largely because they couldn’t stimulate economic growth
It was only with re-armament that unemployment was finally tackled

Question 11

Pensions

Answer 11

State Pensions had been introduced by the 1908 Pensions Act
Although they were popular with the eligible over 70s, there were criticism that meant they were means tested and did not support the widows and children of the deceased
Minister for Health, Neville Chamberlain, addressed these concerns in 1925 with the Widows’, Orphans’ and Old Age Contributory Pensions Act
This provided an pension of 10 shillings per weeks for those aged 65-70 and provided for widows and children
It was funded by a compulsory contribution rather than taxation
This was initially unpopular with the Labour Party while it felt it penalised the poor
Self-employed workers were allowed to join the scheme in 1937
The lack of tinkering with pension provision compared to unemployment could suggest that Chamberlain did a good job with his act
However, it is more likely that this reflects the pressure placed on interwar governments by unemployment

Question 12

Impact of WW2

Answer 12

Post WW2 saw the creation of the welfare state by Attlee’s government
We must look at how WW2 impacted society:
- Universalism
- Total War
- Experience of Other Classes
- State Involvement
- Labour Experience
- The Beveridge Report

Question 13

Universalism

Question 14

Total War

Question 15

Experience of Other Classes

Question 16

State Involvement

Question 17

Labour Experience

Question 18

The Beveridge Report

Question 19

Labour Government WelfarePolicies

Answer 19

Apart from the method of funding welfare provision, Labour clearly implemented Beveridge’s key ideas of social insurance:
- The Family Allowances Act 1945 provided mothers with a non means tested payment of 5 shillings per week for each child aside from the first - this, however, was less than Beveridge recommended
- The National Insurance Act 1946 created a compulsory contribution system to help pay for o pensions and benefits for unemployment, sickness, funeral expenses and maternity
- The Industrial Accidents Acts 1948 gave additional cover for work place injuries
- The National Assistance Act 1948 established the National Assistance Board to provide help to the most vulnerable poor

Question 20

Challenges to Welfare

Answer 20

Although there was consensus on welfare provision, criticism grew on the right wing over the cost and impact of benefits
One the left wing, there was resentment that not enough was being done to help the poorest
The cost of unemployment benefits rose from 0.6% of GNP to 8.8% in 1970
Some efforts to improve financing were made but level of spending rose both under Labour and Conservative governments

Question 21

Reasons for Increasing Costs of Welfare

Answer 21

Baby booms in the late 1940s and 1960s meant more care and education costs for children
An increasing average life expectancy between 1941 to 1970 from 64-74 for women and 59-69 for men meant more care for the elderly
New social groups in need for support emerged: one parent families and low wage earning families were significant
Higher standards for living prompted demands for a higher minimum standard for the poorest
The growing size of the welfare state requires more bureaucracy to make it work

Question 22

Criticisms of Welfare

Answer 22

Thatcher was a key critic of the growth in welfare provision.
She said that dependence on welfare and the government created a ‘poverty trap’
Critics on the left were angry about the persistence of privilege in education and healthcare
Studies in the 1960s and 1970s also attacked in inadequacy of welfare provision
- things argued that the state had to do more to ensure people received a fair level of support to enable them to live decent lives
However, there was still consensus in the middle between Labour and Conservatives which meant that there was np overhauls of the system until Thatcher got into power

Question 23

Why Was Welfare Challenged?

Answer 23

The New Right
Increased costs
Move from collectivism to individualism
Criticism of welfare claimants as ‘scroungers’
‘Aspiration’ working class
Left Wing Issues

Question 24

The New Right

Answer 24

Thatcher broke the consensus and developed the ‘New Right’
The Conservatives were a party of the middle classes and put increased emphasis on individualism
They wanted people to be aspirational and work hard to get results
This completely went against the consensus
Without the New Right pointing out that the challenges facing welfare would the people have known that there were issues?
The New Right gave a voice to the peopled and the people clearly liked it with Thatcher winning elections from 1979 onwards

Question 25

Increased Costs

Answer 25

As more and more pope moved on to welfare (the economy was getting worse so there was more need for support), the cost of welfare (including the NHS) had began to increase
This must be seen in context of topic
The economy was getting worse and worse and so people were not happy about the spiralling welfare costs at a time of huge inflation
Each government continued to increased funding due to consensus
Even the Conservatives did this
As welfare increased to cover more people, the cost continued to increase
Did this make people want to support the New Right?

Question 26

Move From Collectivism to Individualism

Answer 26

Collectivism caused welfare, so did individualism end it?
By 1979, people were moving away from the experiences of WW2 and began to move to individualist ideas
They had grown up with welfare and didn’t see the issues it caused when it wasn’t there
People therefore wanted a government who would encourage ‘pulling yourself up by the bootstraps’
Was it this that made the New Right so popular?

Question 27

Criticisms of Welfare Claimants as “Scroungers’

Answer 27

The issue of cost was made worse by the perception of some welfare claimants as scroungers
This, in the context of economic issues, made some feel that welfare was unfair and made people lazy
This was very similar to the ideas of poor/underserving poor of the 19th century
This was made worse by the media who often supported the ideals of the New Right

Question 28

‘Aspirational’ Working Class

Answer 28

A new working class with mainly white collar jobs
T
Hey wanted to ‘do better’ and wanted to shake their working class title
Many felt that they were above the welfare claimants and didn’t want to support those who were worse off
The idea was that you can always make yourself do better
Thatcher was seen an example of this
- e.g. the greengrocer’s daughter

Question 29

Left Wing Issues

Answer 29

As well as critics on the right saying that welfare did too much, the said said it wasn’t doing enough
There were mainly examples of where welfare was failing, such as inadequate housing and huge waiting lists for the NHS
Critics on this side pointed this out and wanted governments to increase funding to welfare

Question 30

Education Before 1918

Answer 30

Formal education was very patchy
- children received education from family members
Where children went to school, it was provided by local churches and charities
Private g grammar schools and public schools provided boys with the skills needed for university
Most children would leave at 11 with only basic skills
Reformists felt that this was unfair
The working class were not given a fair chnace in education
There was also a gap between the genders
- boys were taught lessons in science whereas a girls whereas girls were given lesson in how to be a good housewife/mother
University was only for the privileged few

Question 31

Fisher Education Act

Answer 31

This Act aimed to widen opportunities to educate in 1918 in three ways:
- increasing leaving age to 14
- providing nursery schools
- scrapping fees for elementary education
However, this act suffered from a lack of funding

Question 32

1926 Hadow Report

Answer 32

This report suggested that elementary schools be replaced with primary schools for aged 5-11 and three types of secondary education for those aged 11-15:
- grammar schools for academically abled children
- technical schools for those wanting to learn a practical trade
- modern schools for the rest
This was known as the ‘tripartite system’
Although the suggestions were accepted, they were not acted upon as education was not seen as a priority
The Labour minister for education tried, once again, to raise the leaving age to 15 in 1930, but this was rejected by the House of Lords who said it would be too expensive
This meant that children found work in their early teens
This leaving age was not enforced until 1944

Question 33

1944 Butler Education Act

Answer 33

This Act built on the Beveridge Report and tried to to tackle the giant of ignorance
Butler built on the suggestions of the 1926 Hadow Report
The Act set up a Ministry of Education to oversee the work of LEAs
The 11+ exam was at the heart of this act and decided which secondary school you would go to:
- Secondary Technical = - mechanical and technical education - very few established due to cost
- Secondary Modern = - prepare for life and work - 70% of pupils Wendy to these schools in the 1950s
- Grammar Schools = - highly academic - focused on English Literature, Classics and Maths - these schools were usually single sex

Question 34

Issues with the 1944 Butler Education Act

Answer 34

There was still a gender gap in schools, including primary schools
Girls were taught needle work and childcare whilst boys took woodwork and sciences
Even at grammar schools, girls were encouraged to focus on the arts
This reflected the expected career paths for the different genders
There was also still a class gap as those students who could afford to do so hired tutors to help them pass the 11+ and then would go to grammar school, which would enable them to go to university
It was also suggested that the language used on the 11+ exam was more geared towards the higher classes, giving the working class an even bigger disadvantage

Question 35

Comprehensive Education

Answer 35

Between 1960 and 1979 the debate centred on whether comprehensive schools should replace the tripartite system
Some LEAs has rejected the tripartite system as early ad 1954
By 1960, 10% of pupils went to comprehensive schools

Question 36

The Crosland Circular 1965

Answer 36

In 1965, Anthony Crosland, Labour Secretary for Education, released a document known as the Circular 10/65
“If it’s the last thing I do, I’m going to destroy every last grammar school in England. And Wale. And Northern Ireland”
This asked LEAs to begin planning the switch from the Tripartite System to the Comprehensive System, withholding funding for new school building from those who did not comply
This change would be reinforced by the 1968 Education Act

Question 37

Rise of Comprehensive Schools

Answer 37

Momentum for comprehensive schools built throughout the 1960s and the 1970s
Middle class parents called for a new comprehensive system as they were scared that their children would perform badly on the 11+ and end up in a technical school
Teachers unions also called for this
Many teachers began to adopt progressive reforms

Question 38

1967 Plowden Report

Answer 38

Many of the calls from teachers unions for changed were championed in the 1967 Plowden Report
These changes included:
- nursery school building
- student led rather than teacher led
- learning through play in early years
- punctuation and grammar were a hinderance to creativity

Question 39

Issues with the Comprehensive System

Answer 39

Some schools took the suggestions in the 1967 Plowden Report to the extreme
They had no dress code and teachers were known by their first name
Students could pick what lessons they wanted to do and could watch TV if they didn’t feel like studying
Many parents became highly concerned about ‘trendy teachers’ and a lack of discipline
- it caused minor hysteria

Question 40

Further Changes to the Education System

Answer 40

Pupils’ educational opportunities were more affected by other educational reforms that the change to the Comprehensive System:
- only the top 20% took O-Levels
- the rest left with no qualifications until the CSE was introduced in 1965
- this allowed for a greater range of subjects by was viewed as second-class by employers
- 1973 Education (Work Experience) Act

Question 41

University Education

Answer 41

Secondary schools allowed for growth of higher education in Britain
Government funding for higher education increased from £1 million in 1919 to £80 million in 1962
Student recruitment received a major boost in the post-war years
Oxford (Classics/History) and Cambridge (Sciences) still dominated
Smaller universities were created after WW2 including Reading and Nottingham

Question 42

1963 Robins Report

Answer 42

The government commissioned this report because there was a sense of optimism in the ‘baby boom’ generation
By 1960, this generation. We’re reaching the end of secondary education
The government asked Lord Robins to investigate the situation and make recommendations
The report stated that:
- there should be a universal grant to allow all students a university place
- government funding should increase

Question 43

Increase in Universities

Answer 43

Between 1962-1970, the number of universities increased from 22 to 46, with universities now cropping up in York and Lancaster
Due to the increase in funding, technology collages now became polytechnics, which were meant to have the same status as universities
In 1969, the Open University was founded
- this allowed more people to access higher education, inducing females and the working class
Overall, there was an increase in university students
However, this increase was far lower than other advanced industrial nations

Question 44

Pre NHS Context

Answer 44

Health care emerged as an odd hybrid of state and private provision in the 19th century
State healthcare was provided by a range of different agencies
- this included the Poor Law, public health authorities and even education authorities
The Labour Party had called for a nationally organised health system before WW1 but vested interests in the state and private sector meant that this didn’t happen
WW1 exposed the inadequacies of healthcare and this was a spur to further action

Question 45

Ministry of Health and Insurance

Answer 45

A Ministry of Health was set up in 1919, however it lacked authority and political will to radically change the system
A few big insurance companies dearth with around 75% of health insurance while smaller Friendly Societies handled the rest
While people could’ve take out private health insurance, a good deal of their business came from the state thanks to Part I of the 1911 National Insurance Act
By 1937, 18 million workers were covered by state health insurance
However, there were problems with this medical system
Some of the Friendly Societies were so small that they couldn’t afford to pay members’ hospital treatment, went bankrupt, and left people to pay their own bills
The 1911 Act only insured workers, not wives, widows or children

Question 46

GPs Pre NHS

Answer 46

GPs were the first option for medical care
Local authorities provided a range of primary care services
However, patients would not only have to pay for a consultation, they usually had to pay for the medicines too
In rich areas, GPs could earn a lot with not too many patients
When the NHS was launched, many GPs were chocked with the range of medical issues that poor people had put up with rather than pay to get t treated

Question 47

Hospitals Pre NHS

Answer 47

A further problem was a lack of adequate hospital provision
They best hospitals were teaching hospitals
There were 12 of these voluntary hospitals in London
They attracted donations from wealthy donors
The other voluntary hospitals were smaller and attracted less donations
As the cost of medical advancements increased, many voluntary hospitals struggled
They needed to have a higher turnover of patients to make them cost effective
For this reason, they didn’t admit the elderly or those with chronic illnesses
State hospitals emerged from workhouse infirmaries
They were overcrowded with chronically ill and elderly patients
Governments didn’t see health as the priority so these hospitals suffered from a lack of funding

Question 48

WW2 and Health Care

Answer 48

The prospect of war led to the creation of nationally funded organisations to deal with expected casualties
A national system of blood transfusion depots was established in 1938
More significantly, an Emergency Medical Service was set up in 1939 to treat with military personnel and, as the war progresses, a wider range of civilian casualties
National funding led to growth in the number of beds, operating theatres and advanced treatments available
Examples include plastic surgery and the mending of bones
This led to Beveridge tov call for a national health service
He was keen that the NHS should provide preventative as well as curative medicine

Question 49

The Creation of the NHS

Answer 49

Attlee chose Nye Bevan as the Minister of Health, to get the job of creating national healthcare done
Bevan was determined to create a centrally, rather than locally, ran system
This system would be funded by taxation rather than insurance
The 1946 National Health Service Act established a centrally controlled system
Voluntary hospitals were nationalised
The biggest problem appeared to be with the doctors themselves
In February 1948, 90% of the British Medical Association voted against working in the NHS
They wanted control of their careers and independence
Most doctors were concerned about losing their income
However, by July 1948, 90% of doctors (18,000) joined the NHS
Bevan stated that he had to ‘stuff their mouths with gold’

Question 50

Impact of the NHS

Answer 50

The NHS allowed all Britons to take advantage of improvements within healthcare
- TB - death fell from 25,000 pre year to 5,000 per year
- Polio and diphtheria cases fell
- 90% drop in cases of whooping cough by 1970
- Syphilis is nearly eradicated by the 1990s
- MMR developed in 1971
- Improved midwifery led maternal deaths in childbirth to fall from 1 per 1,000 births in 1949 to 0.18 in 1970 - this was lower than the USA
- Over 300 inadequate hospitals were closed and replaced with centres for excellence which where linked to universities
- Life expectancy increased - for men 66 (1950) to 70 (1979) - for women 71 (1950) to 75 (1979)
However, more illnesses come with older age
As people survived into their 8th and 9th decade, some illnesses were on the increase
- Heart disease and cancer were on the rise
- Arthritis became a bigger problem, affecting 200,000 men and 700,000 women in 1970

Question 51

Challenges to the NHS

Answer 51

Bevan had expected that the cost of healthcare would fall after 1989 as people got healthier
The focus was on preventative medicine, as this would reduce the incidence and therefore the cost of more serious health problems
Bevan hoped that people would use the NHS when they needed it but wouldn’t when they didn’t
By 1970, the NHS cost 4.8% of the GNP
- Advances in science meant that more treatments were available
- Higher public expectations and demands of healthcare - people began to depend on the NHS - people would go to the NHS for trivial reasons such as dandruff
- Backlog of cases to deal with
- More staff employed meant higher costs
- In 1951, chargers were introduced for dentures and spectacles - Bevan felt that this undermined his key principles for the NHS and he resigned
- This led to arguments between parties from 1951 - no one could agree on how it should be run
As medical advancements were made in the 1960s and 1970s, the NHS saw increased costs but better healthcare
For example:
- Kidney transplants
- The Pill and Abortion Act
- Hip replacements
- CT scanners
All of this led to more people needing to the NHS and increased pressure