Britain Transformed-Theme 2 Creating a Welfare State Flashcards
(81 cards)
1
Q
What was the state of Welfare provision in 1918?
A
- Government provision for the poor was in a bad state due to early liberal reforms and Victorian poor laws.
- Role of poor law guardians to support workhouse workers for the few men who had unemployment benefits.
- Introduced unemployment insurance in 1911 however only covered 10% of the working population and only women of upper class men would be permitted to maternity leave.
2
Q
What were workhouses used for, when were they abolished?
What did people attitudes shift to now in accordance to state relief?
A
- Had originally been used to house impoverished households in exchange for work however some turned into hospitals for support of the sick and injured.
- Abolished in 1930 yet some were still used for public assistance institutions and it was now recognised that the state had a much larger role to play in relief for the poor.
3
Q
What was the effect of Unemployment Insurance Act and when was it passed?
A
-1920
- Extended social welfare in a number of ways such as National Insurance being extended from the 4 million in 1919 to 11 million by 1921.
- Benefits were increased to 75p for unemployed men and 60p for unemployed women. These were still low compared to average earners such as bus drivers earning £3 a week.
4
Q
What was the justification of extension of state spending in 1920?
A
- The need to support unprecedentedly high levels of unemployment.
- Fears that widespread and extreme poverty might lead to a revolution and promote communist ideas.
- The popular desire to support returning soldiers from WWI who risked their lives.
5
Q
What was The National Economy Act 1931?
A
- Macdonald’s government introduced a means test to limit unemployment benefits.
- The result was it devastated the most deprived parts of the UK and accelerated hardship for the most vulnerable.
- First the means test disqualified short term workers which led to negative effect on men who worked the occasional day in shipyards.
- It led to making more economic sense to be unemployed than work.
- Created a poverty trap leading to the desire for benefits and elaborate scams.
6
Q
What was The Unemployment Act and when was it passed?
A
-1934
-Built on the 1920 act and continued with the distinction between short and long term unemployment
-First, the act got rid of the 10% cut in short term unemployment benefits, restoring the benefits for first six months of unemployment.
-The cut in long term benefits led to public protests, 300,000 protested against the cuts in South Wales alone. However, after some protests they went back to the old ways on long term benefits, showing the public influence on the welfare system.
7
Q
What was the effect of the Second World War on government intervention?
A
- Led to a realisation and need for increased government role in unemployment and directing the economy.
- Things such as rationing and evacuations during WW2 showed the government taking control instead of their previous liberal approach.
- Beveridge report significance
8
Q
What were the effects of rationing?
A
- There was a thriving black market and many items were available that only certain sections of the population could afford. Even though there was a genuine togetherness and equality in Britain as everyone was eating the same in sacrifice to the war effort.
9
Q
What was The Beveridge Report and when was it?
A
-1942
- Was a report set out to destroy the five evils of squalor, ignorance, want, idleness and disease.
- Was written by social reformer William Beveridge as a plan for the reconstruction of Britain after the war.
- Report advocated a new relationship of co operation between state and the individual.
- Report advocated universal benefits, rejecting the means test and a flat rate of contributions from all wage earners.
10
Q
What were the reactions to The Beveridge Report?
A
- Beveridge’s vision was extremely popular and sold 635,000 copies.
- The ministry of information monitored public opinion and found the report benefitted all elements of society and was well received by the British newspapers.
- The government decided not to implement the recommendations immediately. PM Churchill decided against introducing excessive welfare benefits and was part of the reason he lost the 1945 election to Atlee.
- All parties adopted the report in some form.
11
Q
What were Labours actions after the 1945 win?
A
- Argued that state planning should continue in order to rebuild Britain and solve depreciation and unemployment. Atlee said the methods used to win the war should be used to win peace.
- 1945 Labour manifesto, let us face the future made the connection between social welfare and economic success, argued economic success had to be achieved to fund the social welfare.
- Would be a healthier, more productive and more educated workers would make the economy grow.
12
Q
What was The Family Allowances Act and when was it?
A
-1945
- Created child benefits for the first time.
- The act gave the allowance of 5 shillings a week for each child except the eldest.
- Therefore, the Act also led to an improvement in the status of mothers who did not work outside the home, because they had a small income and were independent from their husbands.
13
Q
What was The National Insurance Act and when was it?
A
-1946
Included:
- Levied a 25p weekly charge on the wages of all workers.
- Made unemployment and sickness benefits available to all workers.
- Paid a state pension to all men over 65 and all women over 60. Pensions £2.10 a week for a married couple.
14
Q
What was The Industrial Injuries Act and when was it?
A
-1946
- Extended welfare by giving workers the right to compensation for accidents and injuries in the workplace.
- This was to combat the high death rates as 2,400 people were killed each year at work. Mining was particularly dangerous making up a quarter of the deaths.
15
Q
What was The National Assistance Act and when was it?
A
-1948
- Offered welfare to those not covered by national insurance as they did not work.
- The homeless, disabled and unmarried mothers were able to claim, as were pensioners living in poverty.
- Now had a centralised National Assistance Board.
- The act delegated many responsibilities for social welfare to local authorities for example they were tasked in finding suitable accommodation for those in need.
16
Q
What were the challenges to welfare provision in the years 1964-79?
A
- Wilson found a £800 million deficit which had been hidden by the Conservatives due to too much spending on welfare and too many imports.
- Wilson was advised to reduce welfare spending however refused due to his commitment to the welfare state and desire to win the next election.
- Had to increase taxation to fund this which started to spark the increasing resentment of the individual on the welfare state. By 1966, social welfare costs had risen 5% of GDP.
17
Q
What was The National Insurance Act(later one) and when was it?
A
-1970
- Heath led the Conservatives to victory and inherited high inflation and poor relations with trade unions.
- Act included:
- Gave Pension rights to 100,000 people who had not been converted by the 1948 National Insurance Act.
- Introduced an attendance allowance
- Increased child allowance for mothers
18
Q
Who was Sir Keith Joseph and what was his opinions on the welfare state?
A
- Joseph was a Conservative MP who was deeply concerned with the inefficient spending in the welfare state and criticised Heath’s government that had spent more than when Labour was in power.
- Believed that the only way to help those in poverty would be to cut the welfare state to stop the dependency on the state and to escape the cycle of poverty.
19
Q
What were the arguments by Joseph and Hayek on government spending and efficiency in welfare provision?
A
- First, Joseph claimed that private businesses were run to make a profit, and due to the government not aiming to make a profit they spent their money inefficiently.
- Second, Joseph argued the more money the government spent, the more inefficient the economy would be. Believed the government should cut government spending in order to make Britain richer and more efficient.
20
Q
What were the Conservatives opposing in terms of inflation with high welfare spending?
A
- Joseph argued that welfare spending required high levels of government borrowing. This increased the amount of money in the economy without increasing the amount of goods available which ultimately led to inflation.
- The government tried to invest even more in welfare to control inflation which ultimately made inflation even worse. Only solution was to cut government spending especially welfare provision.
21
Q
What were the Conservatives opposing in terms of dependency in high welfare provision?
A
-Ended in 1979
- Radical Conservatives such as Joseph argued welfare bred a dependency culture.
- This “dependency culture” led to two problems. First, it promoted economic decline, as more and more people gave up work and therefore contributed nothing to the economy and increased reliance on the state.
- Secondly. it perpetuated relative poverty as people relied on small handouts rather than earning a decent wage.
- According to the Conservative right, the dependency culture also resulted in moral problems. Welfare they claimed robbed people of self respect that people gained through hard work.
- In essence, the “dependency culture” created a group in society with no goals or aspirations who simply lived off the state.
22
Q
When and why did it lead to the end of the consensus for Heath?
A
- 1974
- Heath’s failure to win the election in 1974 was the biggest factor in the loss of the welfare state.
- With Heath’s loss, the radical Conservative right seized the opportunity to replace Heath with a more right wing and less sympathetic, Margaret Thatcher.
- Thatcher led a new generation of Conservatives who no longer believed in the post-war consensus, who now would plan on cutting government spending to encourage people to be more self-reliant and pull back the role of the state.
23
Q
What were the new policies to the start of Thatcher’s conservative reign 1974-79 in terms of welfare provision?
A
- New Conservative leadership attacked Wilson’s Labour welfare policies. These policies included:
- A 25% rise in pension rates and a freeze in council house rents in the budget 1974
- Invalid Care Allowance 1975
- Universal Child benefit 1975, for all children including firstborn, number of children under this doubled.
- Wilson sought to fund these by taxing high earners.
-Callaghan who succeeded Wilson as Labour PM continued to develop welfare policies such as the Supplementary benefits Act 1976.
24
Q
What was the first major cut in 1976?
How much were the cuts?
A
- First cut was insisted by the IMF that was to cut government spending in order to repay a 4 billion loan.
- The government made 2.5 billion in cuts. Housing and education budgets were cut but pensions and other benefits were left largely unaffected
25
Who were the opponents to welfare, not just the Conservative Party?
- The Conservative party was not the only group opposed to welfare, much of the press such as The Times, became increasingly critical of the believed excessive welfare spending. Also the W/C and M/C were now seeing welfare as a problem, rather than a solution.
- The generation who grew up in the 60s and 70s possessed less of a collectivist attitude that had been shared during the war, and now adopted a more individualistic attitude in a hope to get rich, paved the way for the Conservatives.
26
Public Health- What was the state of health provision in years 1918-45?
- Healthcare was patchy during these years. Local health authorities had some responsibilities, as did charities. Much healthcare was private, as a result healthcare seemed to be improving however had many areas of decline.
- Many employees were covered by health insurance, although their families were not.
27
What was the healthcare consensus in 1918-39?
- Was a widespread consensus that the government should play a leading role in healthcare provision.
- Believed the government should invest in research to stop fatal diseases, medical training, organise a national network of hospitals and play a role in rationing healthcare.
28
What were government reforms in healthcare 1919-29?
- The role of the government in healthcare provision expanded significantly in the decade following WWI.
- In 1919, the government introduced a Ministry of Health.
- Christopher Addison, the first minister of health was an academic and medical doctor who was crucial in organising medical care for troops.
29
What was the problems associated with tuberculosis and what was the act?
- Addison set up Medical Research Council(MRC) to help stop the spread and find a cure. It was a official, publicly funded body but independent of government control.
- As a result of The Tuberculosis Act 1921 making provision of sanitoria, TB cases saw a constant decline from 1920-38.
30
What was The Local Government Act and when?
- 1929
- Steered by Neville Chamberlain and was the most important medical reform act.
- It passed responsibility for poor law hospitals to county and borough councils.
- Allowed county and borough councils to convert Poor Law infirmaries, which only served the poor, into public hospitals.
- Gave local authorities responsibility for other areas of public health such as disease clinics, child welfare and school meals.
31
What was healthcare in the depression like?
- Despite medical reforms, less than half of the population was insured against illness in 1929.
- Uninsured people were forced to rely on private healthcare which in many cases did not pay out enough to cover medical costs.
- The depression focused the debate that healthcare was inefficient and a consensus was reached that it did provide for all.
- Private practices however did show innovation.
- Medical professionals preferred the idea of regional rather than national.
32
What was The Pioneer Health Centre and Finsbury Health Centre?
- Established in 1935, is an example of experiments with preventive health.
- Local residents paid a subscription of 5p a week to join the clinic and receive regular check-ups.
- Around 950 residents joined.
- Finsbury was another example of innovative healthcare. Opened in 1938, it was the most technologically advanced and modern public centre of the era. It addressed the recent issues such as TB and had a wide range of facilities.
- These inspired wartime planners and architects of the NHS.
33
What was healthcare like by 1939?
- Public health seemed to be increasing with indicators such as infant mortality was in decline. Infant morality dropped from 14.3 in every 1,000 to 12 between 1936-38.
- However, areas in extreme poverty did not. Maternal morality was 50% lower in working classes than middle classes. Equally, M/C men lived 12 years longer than W/C men.
- The failure to deal with typhoid in Croydon in 1937 led to deaths of almost 50 people. People started to see the inefficiencies compared to other areas of the British Empire.
34
What was The Emergency Medical Service and when?
- 1939
- It was created to provide healthcare to those wounded by the air raids.
- It allowed the government to dictate a hospitals, a power not previously possessed.
- It brought a pool of expertise and resources.
- War also led to a change of attitude and favoured government intervention.
35
What was the effect of negotiations for the NHS?
- The negotiation between doctors and managers from hospitals were used to create a health system.
- Negotiations in 1942-44 resolved many major issues. The government published a white paper on health and recommending a new national system paid by general taxation.
- Was a huge shift as all three main aprties committed themselves to state-provided, centrally funded healthcare.
36
What were parties view on the NHS?
Who did Atlee appoint to minister of health?
- Their was a clear political consensus behind the creation of the NHS as both parties had promised it.
- With Atlee's arrival, he formed the cabinet giving the minister of health to Aneurin Bevin. Between 1945-46 Bevan committed himself to the creation of the NHS.
- Between 1945 and before Thatcher, parties continued to support the NHS.
37
What was The National Health Service Act and when?
- 1946
- The Act established a National Health Service based on the following:
- Healthcare would be universal, available for all
- Healthcare would be comprehensive, NHS would offer curative and preventive care, mental and physical healthcare, hospital care and healthcare would be free: patients would not pay for the care they received at the point of delivery.
- Would be paid for through direct taxation instead of insurance.
- All hospitals would be nationalised: local, voluntary and private hospitals were merged into one unified system.
- NHS hospitals would be run by regional hospital boards managed by executive committees and local authorities would provide ambulance and vaccinations.
38
How did Bevin win the support of doctors?
- Until the foundation of NHS 1948 Bevin struggled to get co-operation off doctors. He had to agree to:
- Consultants could still work privately and were allocated beds for private patients.
- GPs were able to avoid becoming local authority employees and therefore subject to local authority pay controls.
- Regional Health Boards were appointed, not elected and were dominated by consultants who tended to be upper middle class.
39
What section of The National Health Act established clinics?
What was the opposition and what was its effect?
- Section 21 of the National Health Act called the establishment of health clinics where GPs, consultants and nurses would carry out many different acute healthcare just like the Pioneer in Peckham.
- This was opposed by the BMA who thought it downgraded the status of doctors.
- This was because doctor's practices were private businesses the BMA feared this would affect doctors ability to earn.
- By 1958, only 10 clinics had been built showing the massive influence the BMA had on the NHS and the fate of healthcare.
40
What was the tripartite system of the early NHS?
How many hospitals, beds and staff did the NHS have in 1948?
- The three tiers were:
- Hospital services: accident and emergency services for serious illness and injury.
- Primary care: GPs, dentists, opticians and pharmacists all operated as independent contractors( Private businesses not run by NHS and sold services for profit)
- Community services: Health visitors, vaccination services, health education, midwives were all managed by local authorities and not directly by NHS.
- The NHS inherited the infrastructure of the country which was very unequal. The NHS had 3,100 hospitals, 550,000 beds and 360,000 staff.
41
How did the NHS develop during 1951-79 under governments?
- Was reformed under successive governments.
- Macmillan's Conservative government introduced the Hospital Plan 1962 which led to the creation of 90 hospitals, modernisation of 134 and refurbishment of 356.
- Sir Keith Joseph, Conservative secretary 1970-74 introduced the NHS Reorganisation Act 1973 which introduced new management and created several management jobs.
42
What was the NHS Spending like under governments?
- Spending increased under both governments.
- The Conservatives maintained Labour's level of health spending and during the early 1960s, significantly increased it.
- Spending went from 3.5% of GDP to just under 5% by 1975.
43
What was the impact of the NHS to 1979 for health of the nation and what did it expose?
- NHS proved remarkably effective for the physical health of the nation which is reflected with the decreasing morality rate.
- However, NHS did expose the inequalities of health service as middle classes received better treatment and so did men over women.
- Also was lesser improvements in mental health rather than physical.
44
What was the NHS impact on public health?
- Life expectancy increased from 65 in men and 70 in women in 1948 to 71 in men and 77 in women in 1979.
- NHS also had a positive influence on attitudes towards healthcare and the role of the state.
- However, the improvement was not completely uniform. The Merrison Report(1979) argued that hospitals received 70% of NHS funding whereas other services received much less.
- Was also regional inequalities as most of the money in The Hospital Plan 1962 was in London.
45
What was the relationship between class and health?
What were the differences in surgeries?
- The middle classes benefitted more than working classes from the NHS.
- In largely W/C areas 80% of GP surgeries were built pre-1900 whereas 50% for middle class areas showing investment had regional disparities.
- The Black Report(1980) indicated the gap between the rich and poor increased which meant: W/C women were twice as likely to die in childbirth than M/C and unskilled W/C men were twice as likely to die before 65 than M/C men.
46
What was the inverse care law and examples of middle-class privilege?
- The Inverse care law was the inverse relationship between medical need and availability of treatment.
- Hart compared the availability of healthcare in a South Wales mining community to M/C community in London. SW worked dangerous jobs with more need for healthcare yet had little availability compared to M/C had much safer jobs with much more availability.
47
What was the effect of contraception on birth rates?
- The introduction of NHS gave women greater control over fertility.
- In 1920, women on average had 2 children while by 1966 it was 1.3 children.
- Contraceptive pill introduced 1961 had big effect.
48
What was The Abortion Act and when was it?
- 1967
- Right to terminate a pregnancy would need permission from the mother and father.
- Abortion access controlled by doctors which exposed the prejudices.
- Between 1968-78, 1.5m terminations were carried out.
49
How did the NHS improve childbirth?
- In 1950s, only 60% gave birth in hospital while by 1978 it was 97%.
- However, episiotomy was used which was very painful and it is disputed that power was shifted away from women to men in birth as abortions were controlled by doctors.
50
Did the NHS give women better opportunities in the workplace?
- It did but still equality was not met.
- Created a "care profession" which was female dominated as the NHS attempted to recruit 54,000 nurses.
- Some Caribbean women were recruited.
- Women however still faced poorer pay and work opportunities, especially ethnic minorities.
51
What was the NHS impact on mental health?
- Was explicitly created for physical, not mental health.
- 1957 Royal Commission led to The Mental Health Act 1959 which introduced:
- New terminology e.g "mentally ill" rather than insane.
- The decision to force mental health treatment onto a patient would no longer be through judges but by medical professionals.
- Introducing an open door policy, where people could come for mental treatment in day-cares.
52
What were the drawbacks of mental health in the NHS?
- The 1962 Hospital Plan proposed to reduce hospital beds of those mentally ill by 50% by 1975.
- By 1974, 15% of day-cares needed were available and only 33% of hospital places were available.
- No major reform happened until 80s.
53
What was the expansion of treatments in NHS from 1948-64?
- Demand for treatment grew rapidly.
- In June 1948(A month before NHS was introduced) 6.8 million drug prescriptions were given while by September it was 13.6 million.
- NHS spent 250% more on drugs in 1964 than 1951 and led to introducing drug costs.
- Various vaccinations now were offered instead of just smallpox, which was the only vaccination given before 1939.
54
What led to the increase in staffing and technical staff in the NHS and by how much did it increase from 1951 to 1978?
- Increasing high-tech equipment led to higher quality staff being needed such as organ transplants.
- Technical staff increased by 300% from 1966-79.
- Went from 407,000 to over 1 million by 1979.
55
What was Thalidomide?
- Showed how medical developments can go terribly wrong.
- Was sued to aid women through pregnancy and led to 10,000 deformed babies as it had not been properly tested.
56
What was the challenge of an ageing population for the NHS?
- Grew from 5 million in retirement to 7 million in 1971.
- Led to NHS performing over 24,000 hip replacements which was impossible in 1960s.
- Also 800 kidney transplants a year and 5,000 heart.
57
What was Education like before 1918?
- Was provided locally for most children.
- Local authorities paid teachers wages, provided free school meals for the poorer children and ensured the infrastructure of school buildings were up to date.
58
What was The Education Act and when was it?
- 1918. Was ambitious.
- Report recommended a school leaving age of 14, a new tier of county colleges to provide vocational training to leavers up to 18.
- Curriculum created for "practical instruction" for less able children to prepare them for the workplace and "advanced instruction" for more able.
- More of the costs of education were moved away from local authorities as control over school finance was centralised which teachers salaries and pensions while improving school standards.
59
What were the two types of schools in 1918?
- Elementary school- Up to 14 for basic education.
- Secondary and technical- educating until 16.
60
What was The Hadow Committee and when?
- 1926 which recommended:
- Abolition of elementary schools and division into primary and secondary schools with children leaving at 11.
- Raising of leaving age to 15.
- However was not adopted due to high cost.
- Classes were as big as 60
61
What was the attendance of working class children after age of 14?
- 13% of working class children were still in school after age 14.
- Only 20% of children were in secondary education as most left at 14.
62
What was the effect of Grammar Schools?
- Charged fees but brighter children could attain scholarships in which they would asses with entrance exams.
- Due to the high investment in the schools, it provided an excellent education which was sought after.
- However, the system was based on wealth as poorer children had less opportunities. Even if they attained a scholarship they would still need to work to help their family.
63
What was The Butler Act and when?
- 1944
- Proposed a tripartite system of Grammar, secondary modern and secondary technical schools.
- Would be decided by the eleven plus exam, due to the low number of technical schools it was more to see if you got into grammar school or not.
- It effected social change in the 1960s and 70s.
64
What were grammar, secondary modern and technical schools?
- Grammar- was the most desirable and the eleven plus exam was intended to provide more opportunities for working class children.
- Secondary modern- Tended to educate the lower middle class and working class and had fewer resources and less qualified teachers. 75% of students went. In 1964, only 318 students had been entered for A levels.
- Technical- were used for scientific or engineering work however few were ever built due to high costs. Intake was only 3% of all students.
65
What did comprehensive schools of the 50s conclude?
- First was Kidbrooke in 1954.
- Allowed children to not be determined by the eleven plus exam as it had been found to be inaccurate.
- Gave students opportunity for different courses with more resources in which it took more students in.
66
What were some education reports?
Conservatives commissioned two reports.
- Crowther Report(1959) and Newsom Report(1963) which looked into education for those thirteen to nineteen.
- Led to the expansion of comprehensive schools.
67
What was The Crowther Report and when?
- 1959
- Based on the awareness of lack of opportunities for poorer children. Recommended:
- Raising leaving age to 16.
- Creating county colleges for post-16 education.
- Attracting high calibre sixth form teachers.
- Preparing students for university while treating those who were not equally.
- Widening humanities subjects.
- Facilitating large number of teachers to bring these changes.
68
What was The Newsom Report and when?
- 1963
- Examined education for less able children and found serious failings in education in poor areas such as high turnover of teachers.
Made a series of recommendations:
- More focus on researching teaching methods.
- More attention on deprived children's education such as sex education.
- A working party in parliament to examine links between deprivation and poor education.
- More practical subjects for less able children.
69
How did Labour develop comprehensive schools in 1964?
- Got rid of the eleven plus exam.
- In the year of the election, 3906 secondary moderns and 1298 grammar schools and only 195 comprehensives. Showed Labour had a massive impact on infrastructure.
- Full comprehensive policy was lost due to the loss of election in 1970.
70
What was The Education Act(Later one) and when was it?
- 1976
- Wilson knew that ending funding to non-comprehensive schools would be popular with the left-wing of Labour.
- Was simply for LEA's to submit proposals for making schools comprehensive. It grew comprehensive schools even further.
- Comprehensive grew from 16 in 1955 to 3297 by 1980.
71
How was progressive education shown in 1960s and 70s?
- Introduced new and unconventional teaching methods which included:
- Banning corporal punishment
- Giving children more freedom in the classroom
- Encouraging teachers to help and advise rather than lecture.
72
What happened at William Tyneside School?
- The school removed all rules in school and allowed children to do whatever they want such as leave class.
- A government statement was made that William Tyneside school's teachers had done this to impose their own socialist views.
- This was an exception but the press coverage led to widespread fears in the 1970s.
73
What was "The Yellow Book"?
- When Callaghan came to power, he ordered a report on the education system which was published in 1974.
- It found school discipline had declined and many schools did not prepare students for productive roles in the economy.
- Government and public had little to say over school operations.
74
What was The Ruskin Speech?
- Based on the yellow book, he suggested in his speech that:
- Did not wish to return to education in the 50s
- Progressive education had some merits when at the hands of the right teachers, but failed when not coordinated.
- Teachers should be more closely monitored.
-Sparked debate on education.
75
What were Universities like in the 1920s and 30s?
- Universities became a lot more accessible to women and working classes and by 1918 was a lot more diverse.
- Grants were ultra competitive but a lot of bright working classes went to teaching training courses while Oxford and Cambridge were for the wealthy.
76
What was The Percy Report and when?
- 1945 as Atlee's government believed it could be a centre for science and engineering. It recommended:
- The privileged position of classical education like Latin should be replaced with science and education.
- Universities should dramatically expand its cater for students that would be created from The Butler Act 1944.
77
What was The Barlow Report and when?
- 1946
- Showed there was not enough scientists and too many arts subjects showing universities were resistant to change.
- By 1961, despite the recommendations of Percy and Barlow, only 15% of applications were accepted but over 20 new universities opened in the 1960s.
78
What was The Robins Committee and when?
- 1961
- Focused on university education achieving four main goals:
- Universities must give "instructions in skills" to make sure the government had a competent workforce.
- Universities must give students "general powers of the mind" to ensure they are widely educated.
- Teaching academics should still continue to carry out research as it is vital.
- Teaching should also have a social role.
- These led to degrees going from 17,000 awarded to 51,000 by 1970.
79
What was The Open University and when was it founded?
- 1969
- Was established by Wilson in which anybody could be accepted and where people could work at home while doing their degree.
- It ensured anyone who had missed out on education at a young age could become qualified and contribute to Wilson's desire of modernisation.
- Heath considered removing it.
80
What was university conditions like in the 1970s?
- Education Secretary Margaret Thatcher invested heavily in the university sector even while being in bleak economic conditions 1970-74. Increased grant funding by 40%
- Heath achieved 650,000 students in higher education. However, the data does not consider if those dropped out or failed the degree. Nevertheless, saw a massive increase in university numbers.
81
What was the social impact of university education?
- PMs such as Wilson and Thatcher from more modest backgrounds increased the availability for professions such as law and engineering which had previously been for the rich.
- The large number of students were only down to the growth of institutions with 53 universities and the availability of student finance.
