C: Life on Earth

Question 1

Harari (2011)

How long ago did Earth form

Answer 1

4.5 bn years ago

Harari (2011)

Question 2

Harari (2011)

How long ago did organisms form

Answer 2

3.8 bn

Harari (2011)

Question 3

Harari (2011)

How long ago did humans evolve

Answer 3

2.5m years ago

Harari (2011)

Question 5

Harari (2011)

Where and how long ago did Homo Sapiens evolve?

Answer 5

Africa
300,000 yeara ago

Harari (2011)

Question 6

Harari (2011)

First empire

Answer 6

Akkadian Empire of Sargon

Harari (2011)

Question 7

Harari (2011)

When did capitalism first emerge

Answer 7

500 years ago

Harari (2011)

Question 8

Harari (2011)

When did IR come about

Answer 8

200 years ago

Harari (2011)

Question 9

Harari (2011)

Characteristics of IR

Answer 9

• Family and community replaced by state and market
• Mass extinction of flora and fauna

Harari (2011)

Question 10

Harari (2011)

Humans

Answer 10

A being related to the genus Homo; does not specify Homo Sapien

Harari (2011)

Question 11

Harari (2011)

What % of energy does brain consume whilst at rest

Answer 11

25%

Harari (2011)

Question 12

Harari (2011)

What has evolution favoured

Answer 12

Species with strong social ties

Harari (2011)

Question 13

Harari (2011)

When did humans become top of food chain

Answer 13

Last 100,000 years
- Before were in the middl

Harari (2011)

Question 14

Harari (2011)

What affect did cooking have on eating time

Answer 14

Reduced 5x

Harari (2011)

Question 15

Harari (2011)

How does evolution occur (basic)

Answer 15

Mutations

Harari (2011)

Question 16

Harari (2011)

When was the Cognitive revolution?

Answer 16

70,000 - 30,000 years ago

Harari (2011)

Question 17

Harari (2011)

What was the cognitive revolution?

Answer 17

New ways of thinking and making things

Harari (2011)

Question 18

Harari (2011)

What is unique to humans

Answer 18

Only species who can imagine imaginary things

Harari (2011)

Question 20

Harari (2011)

Impact of humans being able to imagine imaginary things

Answer 20

Large numbers of people can cooperate by believing in common myths
- Nationality
- Laws
- Justice
- Human rights

Harari (2011)

Question 21

Harari (2011)

What is Legal Fiction

Answer 21

No physical existence; all imagination

Harari (2011)

Question 22

Harari (2011)

Example of legal fiction

Answer 22

Limited Liability Companies
e.g., Peugeot
- Very good invention as separted risks from individual humans -> allowed innovation
- Legaally independent of the people in them, the money invested or those who manage it

Harari (2011)

Question 23

Harari (2011)

What is a dual reality

Answer 23

• Nations, organisations and human rights are all a social construct
• Objective vs imagined realities
• Objective reality has become dependent on imagined realities -> objective reality defined by social constructs

Harari (2011)

Question 24

Harari (2011)

What type of evolution has modern human kind gone through?

Answer 24

Cultural evolution, not genetic evolution

Harari (2011)

Question 25

Harari (2011)

Example of how in modern society most members are not humans but animals

Answer 25

New Zealand
- 4.5m people
- 50m sheep

Harari (2011)

Question 26

# Harari (2011) Differenec about survival needed today vs past

Answer 26

Do not need much knowledge about natural world to survive ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 27

# Harari (2011) What was better during forager times

Answer 27

Less infectious diseses and better diets ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 28

# Harari (2011) Why are there so many unique species on islands

Answer 28

Evolved in isoltion over millenia ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 29

# Harari (2011) How have humans adapted to new challenges without evolution

Answer 29

Use of tech and skills ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 30

# Harari (2011) Why is the settlement of Australia 45k years ago important

Answer 30

First time Sapiens left African landmass ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 31

# Harari (2011) Impact of foragers on Australian fauna

Answer 31

23/24 of the animal species weighing more than 55kg went extinct - Extinction of Australian mega fauna was the first significanty mark homo-sapiens left on the planet ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 32

# Harari (2011) How often have ice ages occurred

Answer 32

Every 100k years (last one was 75k-15k years ago) ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 33

# Harari (2011) What according to Harari (2011) are humans

Answer 33

"Ecological serial killers" ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 34

# Harari (2011) What is interesting about humans and animal interactions

Answer 34

Human phenotype is not threatening and thus animals have evolved to fear humans ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 35

# Harari (2011) How do fossil records show human impact in Australia?

Answer 35

Eucalyptus trees regenerate well after fires. Humans burned lots of Australaia to attract easily hunted animals. Spread and other trees dissapreared ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 36

# Harari (2011) How many waves of extinctions have there been?

Answer 36

3 1. Spread of foragers 2. Spread of farmers 3. Industrial society ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 37

# Harari (2011) Challenge of IR and capitolocene argument

Answer 37

Long before IR humans were the organisms driving extinctions ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 38

# Harari (2011) What date marked the beginning of when sapiens began to manipulate flora and fauna

Answer 38

10,000 years ago ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 39

# Harari (2011) True of false: No major plant or animal has been domesticated in the last 2000 years

Answer 39

True! ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 40

# Harari (2011) Elaborate on the idea that plants have domesticated humans

Answer 40

- We have adapted our behaviour to a lifestyle of nurturing plants such as spending days cultivating fields ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 41

# Harari (2011) Latin for domesticate

Answer 41

Domus - Latin for house - Sapiens are now living in houses, not wheat ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 42

# Harari (2011) Harari (2011) view of agricultural revolution

Answer 42

More people alive under worse conditions ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 43

# Harari (2011) What do luxuries become

Answer 43

Neccessities ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 44

# Harari (2011) What do farmers in New Guinea do to domesticate pigs

Answer 44

Cut off part of snout which stops them smelling which causes pain and thus stops them wandering away --> done through brutality ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 45

# Harari (2011) How do evolutionary successes often translate into individual experieces

Answer 45

Cause more suffering ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 46

# Harari (2011) Where was the first human civilisation

Answer 46

Mesopotamia ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 47

# Harari (2011) What does the state do

Answer 47

Force people to act in accordance with an imagined order ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 48

# Harari (2011) What is the only way an order can survive

Answer 48

If people believe in it - We believe capitalism is the best economic system because we believe there are immutable laws of nature ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 49

# Harari (2011) Reasons we accept values (3)

Answer 49

1. Built into material life (e.g., individualism and personal rooms) 2. Imagined order shapes our desires (Romanticism tells us today we needs as many different experiences as possible; consumerism tells us to be happy we must consume as much as possible) 3. The imagined order is inter-subjective (shared imagined wiwth many people - law, money, gods and nations) ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 50

# Harari (2011) How to change an inagined order

Answer 50

Mass population need to believe in a different imagined order ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 51

# Harari (2011) Why was writing invented and by whom

Answer 51

By Sumerians Needed to store more data ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 52

# Harari (2011) What does every imagined system try to claim itself as

Answer 52

Natural ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 53

# Harari (2011) What are all societies based on

Answer 53

Imagined hierarchies ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 54

# Harari (2011) What does it mean to be natural

Answer 54

Whatever is possible - Biology enables, culture forbids - Natural and unnatural are taken from Christian theology ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 55

# Harari (2011) What defined the roles and rights of people

Answer 55

Myths, not biology (sex is a biological category and gender is a cultural category) ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 56

# Harari (2011) What is culture

Answer 56

Artifical instincts ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 57

# Harari (2011) What does culture enable for

Answer 57

Large scale co-operation ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 58

# Harari (2011) Give an example of contradictory social values

Answer 58

Equality and individual freedom - Equality can only be achieved by curtailing the freedoms of those better off - This represnets the entire political history since 1789 FR ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 59

# Harari (2011) What does Harari (2011) claim about culture

Answer 59

No authentic cultures free from external influences left ## Footnote Harari (2011)

Question 60

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Island that interests biologists 2300km Southeast of Cape Town

Answer 60

Marion Island ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 61

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is biodiversity

Answer 61

The variety of life ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 62

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Fact about definitions

Answer 62

Most developm on simple variety of life. DeLong 1996 reviewed 85 definitions of biodiversity ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 63

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Definition of biodiversity by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Article 2) - signed by 150 nations in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

Answer 63

"Biodiversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources, including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other equatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part" "This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems" ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 64

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How do Gaston and Spicer (2004) add to biodiversity

Answer 64

All biodiversity past and present ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 65

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How is the term biodiversity laden

Answer 65

Is good per se Its loss is bad It should be maintained --> laden as there are clear perceptions ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 66

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) 3 types of biodiversity

Answer 66

- Ecological - Genetic - Organismal ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 67

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Genetic diversity

Answer 67

The variation in the genetic make up between individuals within a population and between populations ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 68

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Organismal diversity

Answer 68

Encompasses the taxonomic hierarchy and its components, from individuals upwards to species, genera and beyond ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 69

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Ecological diversity

Answer 69

The scale of ecological differences from populations, through niches and habitats, on up to biomes ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 70

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What type of biodiversity is often most commonly thought of

Answer 70

Organismal (Species) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 71

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is a biological species

Answer 71

A group of interbreeding natural populations that do not successfully mate or reproduce with other such groups (and, some would add, which occupy a specific niche) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 72

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is an Ecological Species

Answer 72

A lineage which occupies an adaptive zone different in some way from that of any other lineage in its range and which evolves seperately from al lineages outside its range ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 73

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What are Morphological Species

Answer 73

The smallest natural populations permanently separated from each other by a distinct discontinuity in heritable characteristics ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 74

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Why does biodiversity need to be measured

Answer 74

To answer fundemental questions such as how biodiversity has changed over time, where it occurs, and how it can be maintained ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 75

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is species richness

Answer 75

The physical number of species in a given area ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 76

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is there not

Answer 76

An all-embracing measure of biodiversity ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 77

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Why is biodiversity important

Answer 77

Used for taking conservation action ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 78

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How can genetic diversity be measured

Answer 78

Directly - identifying nucleotides, genes and chromosomes Indirectly - quantifying phenotypic features ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 79

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Pros of Species Richness

Answer 79

- Practical application - Existing info - Surrogacy - Wide application ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 80

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Cons of Species Richness

Answer 80

- Definition of species (at least 7 major species concepts ranging from theoretical to practical) - Different kinds of diversity ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 81

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is biodiversity

Answer 81

Biodiversity is the variety of life, in all its manifestations ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 82

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What are the 2 main sources of the knowledge of historical biodiversity

Answer 82

1. fossil records 2. Molecular data ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 83

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Why is understanding past biodiversity important

Answer 83

Interpreting present and future structures of biodiversity ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 84

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Limitations of fossil records

Answer 84

Show more abundant and longer lived species - Soft bodies organism like jellyfish will not show ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 85

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Stats showing how unrepresentative fossil records are

Answer 85

- 95% of all fossil species are marine animals - 85% of today's recorded plants and animals are terrestrial - Only 7% of all primate species known to have existed are known from fossils ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 86

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is playing an increasingly significant role in understanding biodiversity

Answer 86

Molecular evidence ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 87

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Why is the fossilr record likelyy to underestimate dates of first appearance

Answer 87

- Likelihood of early individuals being fossilised and the fossils recovered is low ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 88

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What did all known organisms originate from

Answer 88

A common ancestor ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 89

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) When did life originate

Answer 89

4500 Myr in the Precambrian - First multicellular organisms ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 90

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How old is Earth

Answer 90

4.543bn year old ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 91

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Evidence that biodiversity is relatively new on a geological timeframe

Answer 91

- Multicellular organisms did not begin to diversify until 1.4bn years ago - 60% of the history of life had passed ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 92

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is the pattern of diversity over time

Answer 92

Increase ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 93

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What determines the overall temporal change in biodiversity

Answer 93

Difference between rates of speciation (adding species) and extinction (losing species) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 94

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How many species ever have become extinct over Earth's history

Answer 94

90% ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 95

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How many species are extimated to have become extinct during mass extinctions

Answer 95

75%-95% ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 96

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What % of extintions do mass extinctions contribute for

Answer 96

4% ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 97

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What does exanct mean?

Answer 97

Alive; surviving ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 98

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Fact about distribution of biodiversity

Answer 98

The bulk of biodiversity is contributed by only relatively few taxonomic groups of organisms; most groups are not particularly diverse ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 99

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is the best estimate of exanct species

Answer 99

13.5 million (large potential errors) - Only 1.75 million currency described ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 100

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is media

Answer 100

Air, soil, water... ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 101

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Biodiversity distribution

Answer 101

Not even across Earth or through media (air, soil, water...) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 102

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Spatial scales of biodiversity according to Whittaker et al. 2001

Answer 102

Alpha - species locally in communities Beta - turnover of species between communities Gamma - number of species across a region ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 103

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What are 2 issues of scale that affect species richness

Answer 103

- Species-Area relationships - Local-regional relationships ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 104

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Species-Area relationship

Answer 104

As the size of an area increases, so does the number of species which it contains (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967) - Explain more than 50% of the variation in species richness between areas. - Formula - S= cA^z (s= species, A = areas, c and z = constants ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 105

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What are the 4 reasons explaining the species-area relationship

Answer 105

1. Sampling (there may be no relationship between species and area but more species are recorded from larger areas because more individuals are sampled) 2. Habitat diversity (larger areas = more habitats = more species. More opportunities for organisms to establish and persist. More habitats as topographically and environmentally more diverse) 3. Colonisation/extinction (As the number of species increases, colonisation declies and extinction rates increase) 4. Speciaton/extinction (species with larger geographic range have a higher chance of speciating in larger areas. And more individuals = less change of chance events causing extinction ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 106

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What could be an exception to species-area relationships

Answer 106

Latitude Example: the small tropical country of Costa Rica (51,100km2) contains 218 reptile species, 796 bird species and 203 mammal species. Canada (9,970,610km2) contains 32 reptile species, 434 bird species and 94 mammal species. (Medellin and Soberon, 1999. ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 107

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What % of Earth's surface do oceans cover

Answer 107

67% ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 108

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is Earth's surface area

Answer 108

511 million km2 ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 109

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Biodiversity could be different depending on taxonomic level being considered

Answer 109

- 90% of all classes known are marine - 15% of all species named are marine -(Reaka-Kudla, 1997) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 110

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How many biogeographic regions are commonly recognised

Answer 110

6-8 ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 111

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Biodiverse hotspots

Answer 111

Areas of high biodiversity. They of concern to conservation biologists. ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 112

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Problem with conservation measures at a spatial scale

Answer 112

Biologically meaningful scales do not always fall within geopolitical units (states, countries) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 113

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Brazil biodiversity

Answer 113

- 56,000 species of plant - >300 species of freshwater fish - 517 species of amphibians - 468 species of reptiles - 1622 species of birds - 524 species of mammals (Mittermeiter et al. 1997) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 114

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How many countries have 66-75% of world's biodiversity expressed in terms of species richness

Answer 114

17 (Mittermeier et al. 1997) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 115

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Some factors influencing biodiversity in terms of species richness

Answer 115

- Area - Latitude - Topographical diversity - Habitat diversity - Human history ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 116

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How many species in UK

Answer 116

>88,000 (Pimentel et al. 1997) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 117

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How many biodiversity hotspots have been identified

Answer 117

25 ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 118

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is a biodiversity hotspot

Answer 118

Areas that contain exceptional concentrations of endemic species and are undergoing exceptional loss of habitat (Myers, 2001) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 119

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What % of land surface do biodiversity hotspots comprise?

Answer 119

1.4% ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 120

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What % of exanct plant species do biodiversity hotspots contain

Answer 120

45% (135,000) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 121

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What % of exanct invertebrate species do biodiversity hotspots contain

Answer 121

35% (9650) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 122

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Why may some continental locations have high levels of endemism

Answer 122

- Long-term ecoclimate stability - Evolutionary hotspots ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 123

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What does Erwin (1983) term "the last biotic frontier"

Answer 123

Tropical rainforest canopies - Areal extent more than 11m km2 - High levels of species richness ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 124

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Importance of coral reefs

Answer 124

-Cover just 0.18% of oceans - Has 25% of all marine species ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 125

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Estimates of species in the deep sea

Answer 125

10 million (Grassle and Maciolek, 1992) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 126

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Most significant influence on biodiversity

Answer 126

Latitude - Species richness of most organisms increases from high to low latitudes - Historical obersvation - (Humboldt and Bonpland, 1807), (Wallace, 1853), (Bates, 1862) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 127

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) 4 Important points about latitudinal biodiversity

Answer 127

- It has been a persistent feature for much of the history of life on Earth - The peak of biodiversity is seldom at the equator. Often 20-30 degrees North (Crame, 2000) - Gradient far from symmetrical around the equator (like. a pear, not an egg) - Steepness of gradient varies. Butterflies more tropical than birds ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 128

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How many species of butterfly are there for each species of bird

Answer 128

2 ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 129

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How does latitude affect humans

Answer 129

Diversity of human langauges and ethnic groups greater at the equator (Cashdan, 2001) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 130

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Why is it harder to understand latitudinal patterns in marine environments

Answer 130

- Depth - Inadequate levels of sampling ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 131

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Proposed mechanisms for latitduinal gradinets in biodiversity (Rohde, 1992)

Answer 131

- Area - Energy available - Time - Competition - Mutualism - Predation - Patchiness - Environmental stability - Environmental predictability - Productivity - Number of habitats - Ecological time - Evolutionary time - Solar energy ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 132

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Area effects - latitude effects

Answer 132

- Tropical regions have larger land area than temperate ones --> higher rates of speciation and lower rates of extinction (Rosensweig, 1992) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 133

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Energy availability - latitude effects

Answer 133

- Higher energy at lower latitudes = wider resource base = more species (Wright, 1983) - Relationship between energy and species richness largely positive - ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 134

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Time - latitude effects

Answer 134

- Greater evolutionary time in the tropics - Why? large scale pertubations such as glaciation or clmatic drying are less frequent in tropics = more time for evolutionary process - High origination rate - Low extinction rate ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 135

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Altitude and depth - latitude effects

Answer 135

- Earth is not flag. 3D not 2D. - Land area varies with elevation - Energy availability higher at lower altitudes - daytime temps allow more photosynthesis and cooler evenings allow lower plant respiration = wider resource base - Higher elevations more isolated (think mountain peaks) = less immigration = less speciation and more extinction. Lower species richness but higher endemism - ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 136

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Species below Earth

Answer 136

- life occurs below Earth too - Organisms rely on chemosynthetic energy production rather than photosynthesis - Bacteria found up to 4000m underground - Depth is marine equivalent of altitude (not totally accurate as no species spends whole life in air whereas some species spend whole life at great depths) - Oceans average 3.8km in depth. Max is more than 10km - Species richness peaks at depths 150-300m below ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 137

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Define briefly the species-area relationship

Answer 137

On average, as the size of a geographical area increases, so too does the number of species that it contains ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 138

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Define briefly the local-regional richness relationship

Answer 138

Local species richness tends to be positively correlated with regional species richness ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 139

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Comparison of species and taxa between marine realm and terrestrial realm

Answer 139

There are more higher taxa in the marine real than in the terrestrial one, but more species in the latter than in the former ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 140

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Global spatiality of species

Answer 140

-Tropical regions contain at least 2/3 of exanct terrestrial species - Marine biodiversity highest in Indo-Western Pacific ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 141

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Summary of uneven distribution of species between provinces

Answer 141

Distribution of terrestrial biodiversity between provinces is uneven, with 17 mega-diversity countries posessing 66-75% of the world's species ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 142

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Most important feature affecting biodiversity

Answer 142

Latitude (need to know why latitude though) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 143

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) General pattern of species richness and altitude/depth

Answer 143

In the terrestrial realm, species richness declines towards high elevations, often with a peak at intermediate elevations, whilst in the marine realm the relationship with depth is typically hump-shaped ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 144

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How can the value of biodiversity be divided in 2

Answer 144

1. Use value 2. Non-use values ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 145

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What are direct use values

Answer 145

Concerned with the consumption and production of marketable commodites - Food, medicine, biological control, industrial materoals, recreational harveting and eco-tourism ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 146

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Direct use value: Food

Answer 146

- Vegetables, fruit, nut, meats - In 1997 global agriculture provided 99% of energy consumed by humans - 75% of human energy intake comes from just 12 kinds of plants (such as bananas, neams, cassava, maize, potatoes, rice, wheat, sugar cane...) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 147

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Direct use value: medicine

Answer 147

- Maintaining health of human populations - More than 60% of world pop relies on plant medicines as primary health care (Harvey, 2000) - Animals also of use. Bears are the only mammal not go get osteoporosis (Chivian, 2001) ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 148

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Direct use value: biological control

Answer 148

- Environmentally friendly alternative to pesticides - Biocontrol programmes - Cost benefit ratio for the control of cassava mealybug by the encrytid wasp in Africa was estimated to be 1:149 ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 149

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Direct use value: industrial materials

Answer 149

- Building materials, fibres, dyes, rubber, oil, chemicals ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 150

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Direct use value: recreational harvesting

Answer 150

- Hunting and fishing - Harvesting of animals - Pets - Plants for gardens - On British Isles, 25,000 plant species grown in Botanical gardens - Illegal trade in wildlife ranks 2nd to arms and drugs market ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 151

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Direct value use: ecotourism

Answer 151

- One of fastest growing industries globally - ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 153

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Indirect use value

Answer 153

- Biota cycles 10^15 Gt annually of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulphur - Biogeochemical cycling sustains life - Functions it performs are vital to human wellbeing ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 154

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Examples of ecosystem services provided by biodiversity

Answer 154

- Atmospheric regulation - Climatic regulation - Hydrological regulation - Nutrient cycling - Pest control - Photosynthesis - Pollination - Soil formation and maintenance ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 155

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What type of use value is harder to recongise

Answer 155

Indirect use value ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 156

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How might ecosystem processes respond to reductions in species richness (Johnson et al., 1996)

Answer 156

1. Redundancy - other species will perform the function 2. Rivet popping - affected after a tipping point is reached 3. Idiosyncracy - magnitude and direction of change is unpredictable because individual species have complex and varied roles ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 157

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Non-use value

Answer 157

The value even if not directly or indirectly exploited 1. Option value - for future use or non-use 2. Bequest value - passing on a resource for future generations 3. Existence value - value to people irrespective of use or non-use 4. Intrinsic value - inherent worth, independent on of that placed on it by people ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 158

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Why are indirect values of biodiversity more difficult to quantify

Answer 158

- Not subject to direct trading in the marketplace ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 159

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) At its most basic level why must we preserve biodiversity

Answer 159

It is not possible to build artifical systems that could provide us with the life supporting systems that natural systems provide us for free ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 160

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What does higher species richness do

Answer 160

- Increases species redundnacy - Increases temporal resillience of ecosystem functioning, increasing reliability of functioning ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 161

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How is biodiversity loss epitomised

Answer 161

Species extinctions ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 162

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How have humans caused species loss

Answer 162

Colonisation ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 163

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) How many recorded extinctions of plant and animal species have there been sicne 1600?

Answer 163

1000 ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 164

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Projected extinction rates?

Answer 164

Orders of magnitude greater than background extinction rates seen in the fossil record ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 165

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What are the primary causes of biodiversity loss

Answer 165

1. Direct exploitation 2. Habitat loss, degredation and fragmentation 3. Effect of introduced species 4. Extinction cascades ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 166

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What do the ultimate causes of biodiversity loss concern

Answer 166

- Size of human population - Rate of human population growth - Scale of human enterprise ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 167

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is one of the main global attempts to set an agenda for maintaining biodiversity

Answer 167

The Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 168

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What is the main objective of the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992

Answer 168

- Conservation of biological diversity - Sustainable use - Fair and equitable sharing of benefits ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 169

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What wil conservation require

Answer 169

Network of protected areas for insitu protection ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 170

# Carrington (2018) What % of living life do humans represent

Answer 170

0.01% ## Footnote Carrington (2018)

Question 171

# Carrington (2018) What % of loss has humans causes to all wild mammals and plants

Answer 171

83% mammals 50% plants ## Footnote Carrington (2018)

Question 172

# Carrington (2018) Plants represent what % of all living matter

Answer 172

82% ## Footnote Carrington (2018)

Question 173

# Carrington (2018) Where is biomass found

Answer 173

86% on land 1% on ocean 13% deep sub-surface bacteria ## Footnote Carrington (2018)

Question 174

# Carrington (2018) What % of all birds for farmed poultry make up

Answer 174

70% ## Footnote Carrington (2018)

Question 175

# Carrington (2018) What % of all mammals on Earth are livestock and humans

Answer 175

96% - This means only 4% are wild mammals ## Footnote Carrington (2018)

Question 176

# Carrington (2018) How much of Earth's animals are thought to have been lost in the last 50 years

Answer 176

1/2 ## Footnote Carrington (2018)

Question 177

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) What has happened to the rate of extinctions since 1950

Answer 177

Reduced

Question 178

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Why are we underestimating extinctions

Answer 178

Assumption of exanct unless proven extinct ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 179

# Gaston and Spicer (2004) Define net primary producivity (Pimm, 2001)

Answer 179

The net accumulation of organic carbon resulting from the surplus of fixation over respiration ## Footnote Gaston and Spicer (2004)

Question 180

Equilibrium Theory of Biogeography

Answer 180

MacArthur-Wilson (1967) - It suggests that species richness on islands reaches an equilibrium point where the rate of new species immigration equals the rate of species extinction.

Question 181

Non-Equilibrium Theory of Biogeography

Answer 181

The non-equilibrium theory challenges the equilibrium perspective, emphasizing that ecosystems are often not in a state of balance due to ongoing disturbances, environmental changes, and historical contingencies - Historical Factors: Past events (e.g., glaciations, continental drift) significantly influence current species distributions, and these legacies may not align with equilibrium predictions. - Disturbance and Change: Frequent disturbances (e.g., volcanic eruptions, storms, human activities) prevent ecosystems from reaching equilibrium, leading to constantly changing species compositions.

Question 182

Summary of how latitude affects specices richness

Answer 182

Climate - higher metanolic rates and more precipitation More niches More habitat complexity Longer growing seasons = more time to diversify Historical stability = accumulation and persistence of species over time More speciation Less extinction More competition Larger land area Higher NPP

Question 183

How much greater is NPP in tropical rainforests as opposed to temperate rainforests

Answer 183

60%

Question 184

Causes of ecological release

Answer 184

1. Natural migration and colonisation 2. Introduction of invasive species by humans 3. Removal of keystone species

Question 185

Consequences of ecological release

Answer 185

Adaptive radiation Speciation Diversification Population growth Population decline Extinction

Question 186

Define ecological release

Answer 186

When a species is freed from limiting factors in its initial environment resulting in a population increase (Whittaker and Fernandez-Palacio, 2007)

Question 187

Why do islands provide a strong example for ecological release

Answer 187

- Small size - Distinct boundaries - Geographical isolation - In essence they are closed systems and unqiue ot the otcomes of general evolutionary trends that occur on continental land

Question 188

Example of adaptive radiation

Answer 188

On the Hawaiian islands, cardueline radiation has reproduced mosy of the variation in the entire order of passerine birds, including warblers, beaks, tanagers and creepers

Question 189

Example of speciation not occurrin gon small islands but occuring on small island arhcipeligos

Answer 189

- Anolis Lizard have speciated on the larger islands of teh Greater Antilles but not on the Lesser Antilles

Question 190

Example of adaptive release not always resulting in speciation

Answer 190

Small islands

Question 191

Example of Estrada et al., 2016 finding factors such as breeding speed, environmental tolerance and diet requirement being key in determinig what species could colonise

Answer 191

European ground squirrels - Can only like in grasslands - Cannot expand its habitat even as Europe becomes more suitable due to warming weather as traits do not allow

Question 192

Example of invasive species brough by humans

Answer 192

- Accidential introduction of mice by sailors onto the Gough Islands in St Helena in 19th century - Mice evolved by be 50% larger than average house mice and rapidly colonised - Reduced the pop size of critically endagered tristan Albatross and Atlantic Pestrel population by eating likeseabird chicks left alone in winter - only 21% survived the 2017-8 breeding season

Question 193

Example of species adapting which can be a disadvantage

Answer 193

18/20 endemic species on Gough Islands have reduced wings (Cox et al., 2016)

Question 194

Example of island rule

Answer 194

Phymy elephants in the Mediterranean whose small ancestors were able to drift on ocean currents (Allen, 2001)

Question 195

Example of Keystone species

Answer 195

Wolves in Yellowstone National Park Paine (1996) - purple sea star on Tatoosh Island, Washington. Sea star was keystone species and removal led to an explosion in mussel pop which crowded out othter species such as benthic algao which supported sea snails and limpets. Biodiversity cut in half from 15 to 8 species