C1 Media (A02/AO3 & exam skills) Flashcards
The following flash cards will help improve your skills of analysis/evaluation & strengthen your memory through spaced retrieval practice and a technique called elaborative interrogation.
WHAT IS ELABORATIVE INTERROGATION?
Elaborative Interrogation involves the learner looking for explanations for facts. A sizable body of evidence suggests that prompting students to answer ‘WHY’ & ‘HOW’ questions facilitates learning.
To help you do this think as hard as possible about the E.I. questions at the bottom of each answer in the following flash cards. What we think hard about is what we remember
►‘Memory is the residue of thought’ (Dan Willingham)
What are some strengths and advantages of the Marxist view of the ownership & control of the media?
The Marxist view = The owners directly control media content. They manipulate that content and media audiences to protect their profits and spread the dominant ideology of the ruling class. (this view is adopted by writers like Miliband)
- Curran and Seaton (2010) found evidence that some media owners (e.g. Murdoch & the ‘Press Barons’) interfere in the content of their news media at the expense of the independence of media professionals (e.g. all of Murdoch’s 175 newspapers supported the Iraq War in 2003)
- According to a former Murdoch editor, Eric Beecher, the consistent ideology of Murdoch’s Newspapers is maintained, “by phone and by clone”. This supports the Marxist view that Media owners can (and do) control the content of the media
- This perspective is logical as media professionals have little choice other than to run the media within the boundaries set by the owners
E.I. - WHY does Murdoch exercise editorial control on major issues such as Europe and General Elections? WHY do media professionals (editors/journalists) have to run the media within the boundaries set by owners?
What are some weaknesses and criticisms of the Marxist view of the ownership & control of the media?
The Marxist view = The owners directly control media content. They manipulate that content and media audiences to protect their profits and spread the dminant ideology of the ruling class. (this view is adopted by writers like Miliband)
- Pluralists would argue that there is a wide range of opinion in the media and that the media have to provide what the audiences - not the owners - want
- The Government regulate media ownership so no one person or company has too much influence
- Audiences are not as passive and gulible as the Marxist view suggets
- The rise of new digital media and the growth of citizen journalism has undermined the traditional influence of media owners
E.I. - WHY might audiences have more control of the media than owners? WHY might audiences not be as passive as the Marxist view suggests? WHY might ‘new media’ be undermining the influence of media owners?
What are some strengths and advantages of the Neo-Marxist view of the ownership & control of the media?
Neo-Marxist view = This approach recognizes the power of owners, but, unlike the traditional Marxist approach, it suggests that owners rarely have direct operational control of the media. However, media professionals are inclined to side with media owners on most issues due to their own privileged backgrounds. (this view is adopted by the Glasgow Media Group)
- It recognizes that owners are often not involved in the day-to-day running of their media businesses
- It recognizes that media managers, editors and journalists have some professional independence, and are not simply manipulated by media owners
- Research conducted by the Sutton Trust (2016) supports the argument that media professionals are drawn from privileged background. Over half (54%) of the country’s leading news journalists were educated in private schools, which account for 7% of the school population as a whole
E.I. - WHY might it not always be possible for media owners to have operational control of their media organisations? WHY are the majority of leading journalists from wealthy backgrounds?
https://youtu.be/pSzh2KjSz6s?t=4m37s
http://www.suttontrust.com/wp-content/uploads/2006/06/Journalists-backgrounds-final-report.pdf
What are some weaknesses and criticisms of the Neo-Marxist view of the ownership & control of the media?
Neo-Marxist view = This approach recognizes the power of owners, but, unlike the traditional Marxist approach, it suggests that owners rarely have direct operational control of the media. However, media professionals are inclined to side with media owners on most issues due to their own privileged backgrounds. (this view is adopted by the Glasgow Media Group)
- This approach underrates the power and influence of the owners. E.g. former Sun editor David Yelland said that all Murdoch’s editors go on a journey where they end up agreeing with everything Murdoch says…“What would Rupert think about this?” is like a mantra in your head’
- Pluralists argue that the rise of new digital media and the internet puts more control into the hands of media users at the expense of media professionals
- Journalists do not simply trot out the dominant ideology, but can develop critical, anti-establishment views which strike a chord with their audiences
E.I. - WHY might ‘new media’ undermine the influence of media professionals? WHY might some journalists be prepared to question the dominant capitalist ideology?
What are some strengths and advantages of the Pluralist view of the ownership & control of the media?
The Pluralist view = They argue that media content is driven not by a dominant ideology or the political interests of owners, but by the fight for profits through high circulation and audience figures, Therefore the media have to be responsive to audience tastes and wishes. (this view is supported by writers like John Fiske)
- There is a wide range of newspapers, magazine, television channels and other media (including the internet) reflecting a huge range of interests and ideas, including those which challenge the dominant ideology
- More people, not just media owners and professionals, have the opportunity to communicate with vast numbers of other people thanks to Web 2.0
- Public Service Broadcasters, such as the BBC, ensure that the interests and tastes of all groups (including minorities) are catered for
E.I. - WHY does the growth of ‘citizen journalism’ support the Pluralist view? WHY might the BBC help to create media diversity?
What are some weaknesses and criticisms of the Pluralist view of the ownership & control of the media?
The Pluralist view = They argue that media content is driven not by a dominant ideology or the political interests of owners, but by the fight for profits through high circulation and audience figures, Therefore the media have to be responsive to audience tastes and wishes. (this view is supported by writers like John Fiske)
- Not all groups in society have equal influence on editors and journalists to get their views across. Even within the new media there are often powerful ‘gate-keepers’ who filter certain views
- Only very rich groups will have the resources required to launch major media companies to get their views across independently and the rich can also use legal action to stop stories that threaten their interests
- The pressure to attract audiences doesn’t increase media choice but limits it - the media decline in quality, and news and information get squeezed out or sensationalized, and turned into ‘infotainment’
- The media themselves may have created audience tastes so that what audiences want is really what the media owners want (‘false needs’)
E.I. - HOW does the concept of ‘gate-keeping’ relate to control of the internet? WHY might the pressure to attract audiences lead to a lack of diversity in the media? HOW might the media cultivate ‘false needs’?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that would support the view that the media act as an agency for social control?
Social control = The processes by which society ensures that people conform to its culture, and the mechanisms by which it deals with deviance
- For Marxists the most powerful agent of social control nowadays is the media. Milliband went as far as arguing that the media had become ‘the new opium of the masses’
- Marxists argue that the ruling class use the media to control what people think. This is known as ‘ideological power’, or ‘hegemony’ - & it is the ability to shape people’s minds in terms that favour the interests of the power holders
- E.g. Marxists argue that capitalist societies are highly unequal. However, they argue that because the rich and powerful control the media they use this to promote a ‘myth of meritocracy’. This leads to people accepting rather than challenging inequality
- Adorno is an example of a Marxist theorist. He called the media the ‘culture industry’ and argued that it produced a popular culture that kept people occupied, placid and docile. This stopped people thinking about important things such as their own exploitation by the ruling class and what is actually happening in the world. This is what Marxists call false consciousness. The media therefore controls people by discouraging critical thinking and misdirection.
- Radical feminists believe that the media plays a powerful role in controlling the lives of women in contemporary society. E.g. They deliberately dupe women into believing in the ‘beauty myth’ (Naomi Wolf), i.e. that they should conform to what is a male image of what it is to be a ‘proper’ woman in terms of good looks, weight size etc.
E.I. - WHY did Milliband call the media ‘the new opium of the masses’? HOW might the media promote a ‘myth of meritocracy’? WHY might popular culture keep the masses passive? WHY does the media promote a ‘beauty myth’ for women?
https://youtu.be/ZVrUElmiSrE?t=5m19s
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that the media act as an agency for social control?
Social control = The processes by which society ensures that people conform to its culture, and the mechanisms by which it deals with deviance
- Pluralists are critical of the Marxist view of social control as they think that it wrongly assumes that media audiences are passive & gullible. In contrast they argue that audiences are active and discriminating in their use and interpretation of the media
- For example, audiences filter what they read, see or hear in the media by selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention
- ‘New media’ offer the possibility of creating autonomous networks of communication which bypass the control by governments and corporations of the mass media. This means that the Marxist view of the media may not be as relevant when assessing the role of ‘new media’
- The internet in particular opens up lots of possibilities for groups to present counter-ideologies of their own which may challenge the hegemony of ruling groups. The potential for groups to use ‘new media’ (e.g. through ‘citizen journalism’) to challenge and resist the power of ruling groups has clearly been shown by a number of recent protests
- Pluralists claim that radical feminist critiques of the media underestimate women’s ability to see through gender stereotyping and manipulation.
E.I. - WHY do recent political protests support the view that the ‘new media’ can be used as a tool of resistance rather than a form of control? WHY is the idea of ‘false consciousness’ criticised by Pluralists?
Outline and explain how the media creates moral panics
Moral panic = A concept used by Stan Cohen that refers to the media’s ability to transform an event or social group into a threat to society (i.e. a ‘folk devil’) through sensationalist reporting of news
- The term moral panic was coined by Cohen to refer to media reactions to groups whose behaviour is regarded as threatening to societal values
- Moral panics are a classic example of ‘deviancy amplification’ where the media overreacts and sensationalises stories whilst demonising deviant groups. Through this process the media may encourage and increase the behaviour they are condemning (e.g. Thornton found that the moral panic about drug taking in the ‘rave scene’ simply added to its attraction to young people)
- The media transforms deviant groups into ‘folk devils’ whose behaviour is represented as being morally degenerate. These groups are usually those who lack power within society such as the young, the poor and minority ethnic groups
- The media use symbolic short hands to represent the groups identified as folk devils. This refers to the way in which the media use things like items of clothing, hairstyles, modes of transport etc. to stereotype and demonise certain groups as troublemakers (e.g. ‘hoodies’)
- The media will then generally adopt the role of a ‘moral crusader’ by exerting pressure on the government and police to clamp down on the group they have labelled as deviant
E.I. - HOW would Marxists interpret moral panics? WHY might moral panics be harder to sustain these days? WHY is it important for the media to use symbolic short hands when representing deviant groups?
Outline and explain the characteristics of the ‘new media’
New media = Media based on digital computers, such as the internet, digital TV and digital radio
- Digitalisation. The growth of digital technology in the 1990s resulted in changes in the way information is stored and transmitted. All information, regardless of format (e.g. images, text and sound) is now converted into binary code
- Technological convergence. Digitalisation resulted in the convergence of different types of information – text, photos, video, films and music – into a single delivery system, available to media devices such as smart TVs, laptops, tablets & smartphones. As Boyle notes, digitalisation allows information to be delivered across a range of media platforms that were once separate & unconnected technologies
- Economic convergence. This technological convergence has also led to economic convergence. Media and telecommunication industries that once previously produced separate and distinct systems of communication, such as the telephone, TV programmes or computers, begin to make economic alliances with each other because digitalisation has blurred the boundaries between media sectors
- Interactivity. The new media are interactive media that are responsive in ‘real time’ to user input. This is exemplified by Web 2.0 (see video link below)
- Choice. Jenkins argues that media audiences today can now interact with a variety of global media, often using a single device in their search for entertainment, information etc.
- Participatory culture. New media audiences are no longer passive receivers of media content. Instead they often actively collaborate with new media and other users by uploading user generated content (Gauntlett refers to new media audiences as ‘prosumers’). Citizen journalism also illustrates the participatory culture of new media
E.I. - WHY has digitalisation had a huge impact on the ownership and control of the media? WHY does Gauntlett use the term ‘promsumer’ to describe new media audiences? WHY might the new media be creating a ‘digital divide’ in society?
Outline and explain the processes by which the ‘news’ is socially constructed
Social construction of the news = The idea that ‘the news’ is a socially manufactured product because it is the end result of a selective process. Journalists cannot report every event which occurs - therefore what counts as news is shaped by a range of influences (e.g. owners, advertisers, media professionals, organisational constraints etc)
- The traditional Marxist perspective emphasises the role of media owners in the production of the news. They argue that media owners such as Rupert Murdoch manipulate the news output of their media
- Chomsky argues that news-gathering is heavily influenced by the power of advertisers. This means that what becomes ‘news’ is partly a result of commercial pressures to attract audiences by selecting and presenting the more colourful and interesting events in society (infotainment)
- The power of media professionals (journalists, editors etc.) to refuse to cover some issues and to let others through is called gate-keeping. Events that are eventually reported in the news have been through some kind of gate-keeping process, with journalists, and particularly news editors, deciding what is newsworthy and what is not
- Research by Galtung and Ruge has shown that journalists operate with values and assumptions about which events they regard as ‘newsworthy’. These assumptions are called news values, & they guide journalists in deciding what to report and what to leave out, and how what they choose to report should be presented (e.g. proximity, threshold, personalisation, titillation etc.)
- Journalists also operate within what Becker called a ‘hierarchy of credibility’. This means they treat more seriously the views of powerful and influential individuals and groups. Hall et al suggest such people are the ‘primary definers’ of ‘news’
- Newspapers and TV news programmes tend to work within quite tight time schedules. This means that short cuts to news gathering may need to be taken and has led to the practice that Nick Davies calls ‘churnalism’
E.I. - WHY are the news media full of stories that are interesting to the public (gossip, trivia, scandal etc.) rather than in the public interest? WHY may ‘churnalism’ increase the influence of the primary definers on the production of the news? HOW is ‘citizen journalism’ influencing the production of the news?
https://youtu.be/treVf6NXJYA?t=38s
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the view that the media present stereotypical images of women
Stereotypes = Generalised, oversimplified views of the features of a social group, allowing for few individual differences between members of the group. Media stereotypes act like codes that give audiences quick & easy-to-understand images of groups.
- The way women are often under-represented or represented in a limited no. of stereotypical roles was described by Tuchman (1978) as the ‘symbolic annihilation of women’
- A stereotypical image of women that has featured heavily in media representations is the content, capable and caring house-wife and mother. Ferguson uses the term ‘cult of femininity’ to refer to the way in which women’s magazines promote a traditional ideal where excellence is achieved through caring for others, the family, marriage and appearance
- Wolf (1990), in her book ‘The Beauty Myth’, suggests that the stereotypes of women used by the media present a particular ‘beauty ideal’ through which they transmit the strong ideological message that women should treat their bodies as a project in constant need of improvement
- This media beauty stereotype, especially when it is found in pornography, national newspapers and lads’ magazines, essentially views women as sex objects to be consumed by what Mulvey (1975) calls the ‘male gaze’, whereby the camera lens essentially ‘eyes up’ the female characters, providing erotic pleasure for men
- Bates (2014) argues that the music industry is particularly guilty of sexually objectifying women in lyrics and video. Andrea Levy uses the term ‘raunch culture’ to describe the increasingly sexualised culture that objectifies women
- The above points suggest that women are stereotyped by the media either as domestic servants providing comfort & support for men, or as sex objects to service men’s sexual needs. In both cases, women play subordinate & subservient roles. Radical Feminists see this as an example of patriarchal ideology – a set of beliefs which distorts reality and supports male dominance
E.I. - WHY are media stereotypes particularly easy to spot in advertising? HOW would the ‘Beauty Myth’ be interpreted by Marxists and Marxist Feminists? HOW do animated Disney Films provide eveidence of gender stereotypes?
https://youtu.be/F0BhUXt7_rY?t=1m21s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lNlKjUfmaUA
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that the media present stereotypical images of women
Stereotypes = Generalised, oversimplified views of the features of a social group, allowing for few individual differences between members of the group. Media stereotypes act like codes that give audiences quick & easy-to-understand images of groups.
- Liberal Feminists argue that although women are still stereotyped by the media, this is happening to a lesser degree than in the past as the number of female journalists, editors and broadcasters increases
- There is some evidence that the representation of gender roles has become more equal and less stereotyped. Drawing upon two content analysis studies of gender representations on prime-time TV shows, Gauntlett’s research (2002) indicates a massive decrease since the 1970s in the proportion of women whose main occupation was represented as housewife – now only 3%
- These cultural changes started to seep into British television culture through American series such as Sex in the City, Ally McNeal, Buffy the Vampire Slayer and The X-Files. Westwood notes how many of these series subverted hegemonic definitions of gender by having female lead characters who were just as confident and powerful as the male character
- There has been a fundamental change in women’s attitudes – Wilkinson (1994) calls this a ‘genderquake’ – which means that their aspirations have dramatically changed with education and career replacing marriage and family as priorities. This is increasingly reflected in media aimed at women
- For example, magazines aimed at women (e.g. Cosmopolitan) challenge traditional stereotypes of femininity with women no longer portrayed as the weaker sex. Instead, young women are encouraged ‘to be assertive, confident, and supportive of each other’ (McRobbie, 1999)
E.I. - WHY should we be cautious when generalising about media representations of women? WHY have some feminists argued that media representations of female action heros constitute a ‘post-feminist masquerade’?
Outline and explain the ways in which the media are an important agency of socialisation
Agency of socialisation = Any social group or institution that passes on cultural norms and values to others e.g. The Family, Media, School etc.
Media as an agency of socialisation = The idea that the media helps to transmit the culture of society by teaching people norms, values etc.
- The media help to construct gender identities & thus socialise individuals into their gender role. Judith Butler points out that media stereotyping of gender roles is so powerful it is difficult to avoid gender socialisation & gendered behaviour
- According to Cohen ‘moral panics’ created by the media help to clarify the moral boundaries of the society in which they occur and reinforce the norms & values of mainstream culture
- The media help to create a national culture and national identity, particularly through the reporting of things like international sport (Olympics and World Cup for example)
- Media saturation has increased the influence of the media as an agency of socialisation.
E.I. - HOW does the media socialise children into gender roles? WHY might ‘moral panics’ help to clarify moral boundaries? WHY has ‘media saturation’ increased the influence of the media?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the view that the portrayal of ethnic minority groups in the media is negative and stereotypical?
Stereotypes = Generalised, oversimplified views of the features of a social group, allowing for few individual differences between members of the group. Media stereotypes act like codes that give audiences quick & easy-to-understand images of groups
- Black crime is the most frequent issue found in media news coverage of ethnic minorities. Van Dijk found that Black people, particularly African-Caribbeans, tend to be portrayed as criminals, especially in the tabloid press and more recently as members of organised gangs that push drugs & violently defend urban territories
- Watson (2008) notes that moral panics often result from media stereotyping of Black people as potentially criminal. This effect was first brought to sociological attention by Hall’s classic study of a 1970s moral panic that was constructed around the folk devil of the ‘Black mugger’.
- Poole (2000), argues that Islam has always been demonised and distorted by the Western media. Muslims have been stereotyped as backward, extremist, fundamentalist and misogynist. Poole’s work can be linked to the concept of ‘the other’.
- It can be argued that British news reporting is ethnocentric, i.e. shaped by the view that British White culture is superior in its values and norms compared with other cultures. As a result, the activities of other cultures are likely to be generally reported as deficient, inferior and strange.
- Immigrants are often represented as a ‘threat’ in terms of their ‘numbers’ - and because of the impact they supposedly have on the supply of jobs, housing etc.
- The Information Centre about Asylums and Refugees notes that studies of media coverage of asylum seekers have constructed an image of migrants as a problem or threat to British identity & cohesion.
E.I. - WHY is the idea of ‘othering’ a useful concept when analysing media representations of ethnic minorities? WHY are media reports on immigration often false or distorted? WHY are minority ethnic groups often used as folk devils?
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that the the portrayal of ethnic minority groups in the media is negative and stereotypical?
Stereotypes = Generalised, oversimplified views of the features of a social group, allowing for few individual differences between members of the group. Media stereotypes act like codes that give audiences quick & easy-to-understand images of groups
- Gauntlett (2008) points out that sociological analysis of media representations needs to be cautious, because of the sheer diversity of media in Britain. Although certain newspapers like The Daily Mail and Express perpetuate negative stereotypes other sections of the media are more positive.
- For example Black & Asian presenters are much more common, with some in positions of considerable authority. In 2005, a BBC News Online survey noted that Black and Asian people were represented as newscasters and television journalists (However, it should also be noted that there are few people from ethnic minorities in senior management positions within the mainstream media)
- Media have been firm in their exposure of racism. For example, there has been high profile coverage of football racism
- Although many sociologists have argued that the media are not concerned with black victims of crime the extensive media coverage of the murder of the black teenager Stephen Lawrence shows the media in a more positive light
- Some parts of the media that cater for ethnic minorities are on the increase. For example there is a range of homegrown media agencies that are owned, managed and controlled by ethnic minorities Their representations of race are very different from those found in the wider media
E.I. - WHY might it be argued that the extensive Daily Mail coverage of the murder of Stephen Lawrence is an example of ‘tokenism’? WHY might the rise in homegrown media agencies lead to a process of ‘ghettoization’?
Outline and explain the main changes to patterns of media ownership
- Probably the most important trend in the pattern of media ownership has been the increasing concentration of media ownership. Bagdikian (2004) points out that, in 1983, 50 corporations controlled the vast majority of all news media in the USA. However, by 2014, media ownership in the USA was concentrated in six corporations
- Curran suggests that there has been a similar concentration of ownership in the British newspaper industry. Seven individuals dominate the ownership and content of UK national daily and Sunday newspapers
- We are also seeing concentration in terms of ownership of internet companies, as the traditional media companies compete with cybermedia organisations to control social networking sites, which are extremely lucrative in terms of advertising revenue
- Concentration of ownership is consolidated by cross media ownership or horizontal integration. This refers to the fact that the bigger media companies often own a range of different types of media outlets
- Concentration of ownership is also strengthened by vertical integration. This refers to the increasing trend of global media conglomerates to control all levels of media production (e.g. Time Warner makes its own films and distributes them to its own cinema complexes)
- Concentration of media ownership has been assisted by globalisation. A small no. of companies have transformed themselves into global media conglomerates. E.g. News Corporation owns hundreds of different types of media companies across Asia, Europe & North America
- There are, however, some factors that suggest the steady march towards media concentration may not be inevitable. E.g. the failure of very large corporations to work effectively for their shareholders has led to the decision to de-merge certain media companies (e.g. the Internet provider AOL and Time Warner have now gone their separate ways). Also following the phone hacking scandal News Corporation has been split into two different companies
E.I. - WHY are many people very concerned about media concentration? HOW can the points above be linked to the concepts of ‘synergy’ & technological convergence?
Outline and explain media representations of the working class
Working class = Usually seen as the lowest class in capitalist societies & traditionally seen as being made up of those who earn wages through manual labour
- The working class are generally under-represented in the media, but when they are represented they are typically stereotyped in negative ways
- According to Lisa Mckenzie unfair, patronizing and mean representations of poor, working class people, and the places where they live, are everywhere in the UK’s media. They are often viewed as ‘disgusting subjects’; usually through targeting disparaging descriptions of their bodies and clothing. The cultural practices of the working class are not only described as ‘tasteless’, but are also encoded as immoral, wrong and criminal
- Owen Jones highlights the growth of a new TV genre that he calls ‘poverty porn’ (media which exploits the poor’s condition in order to gain audiences). The recent C4 series Benefits Street is an example
- Newman argues that when working-class people are featured in fictional representations, the media depiction is often either unflattering or pitying. They have typically been portrayed as well intentioned but dumb buffoons or as immature exhibitionists
- Older representations of the working class are more sympathetic. The ‘kitchen sink’ British cinema of the 1960s, represented by films such as Saturday Night, Sunday Morning and Kes, television drama such as Our Friends in the North and films such as The Full Monty and Brassed Off have portrayed working class life and problems in a dignified, sensitive and supportive way
E.I. - WHY have we seen the growth in ‘poverty porn’ in recent years? WHY do the media often portray the failings of the working class as arising from their lack of conformity to middle-class values, norms and life-styles?
How much time do I have for the C1 exam paper in total?
You have two and a half hours in total for the C1 exam. There are three sections (a,b & c) in this exam and Media is section c
Watch this screencast for more information:
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the hypodermic syringe model of audience effects?
Hypodermic Syringe Model = A theory which argues that the effect of the media on audiences is powerful, uniform, direct and immediate. This perspective therefore views audiences as passive and easily manipulated
- Bandura et al. (1963) carried out an experiment on young children which involved exposing them to films and cartoons of a self-righting doll being attacked with a mallet. They concluded on the basis of this experiment that violent media content could lead to imitation or copycat violence.
- Advertisers spend millions of pounds on advertising their products, and we might reasonably assume that these have some effect on consumers and the sale of goods advertised. In 1957, Vance Packard wrote a famous book about advertising called The Hidden Persuaders. He described how ordinary people were persuaded to consume goods without being aware of the techniques being used. Advertisers increasingly hire psychologists to develop subliminal messages (below threshold of consciousness) in order to persuade consumers to buy products.
E.I. - HOW does subliminal advertising work? WHY are the experiments carried out by Bandura criticised?
What are some weaknesses and criticisms of the hypodermic syringe model of audience effects?
Hypodermic Syringe Model = A theory which argues that the effect of the media on audiences is powerful, uniform, direct and immediate. This perspective therefore views audiences as passive and easily manipulated
- The model assumes that the entire audience will react in the same way to media content. However, people may well have a range of responses to media content, depending on their own social situation & the experiences they have had
- It assumes audiences are passive, gullible & easily manipulated – but people are active thinking human beings, who have their own ideas, and who interpret what they see and can give different meanings to it
- It assumes the media have enormous power and influence, overriding all other agencies of socialisation and people’s own experiences
- Gauntlett argues that experiments such as Bandura’s lack ecological validity
E.I. - WHY might people’s response to the media be shaped by their social background? WHY might other agencies of socialisation have a bigger impact on behaviour than the media? WHY might Bandura’s experiment lack ecological validity?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the cultural effects model of audience effects?
Cultural effects model = This theory argues that the effects of the media on audiences mainly occur through gradual & continuous exposure & persuasion into acceptance of the dominant ideology (i.e. a ‘drip-feed’ level of influence). Also known as ‘Cultivation Theory’
- The model recognises the power of dominant groups to influence the content of the media.
- It recognizes that the media are likely to be influential as a key shaper of people’s view of the world, but these effects are likely to be over a long time period, rather than immediate and short-term.
E.I. WHY would this model be supported by Marxist sociologists? WHY might the influence of the media be gradual and incremental rather than immediate?
What are some weaknesses and criticisms of the cultural effects model of audience effects?
Cultural effects model = This theory argues that the effects of the media on audiences mainly occur through gradual & continuous exposure & persuasion into acceptance of the dominant ideology (i.e. a ‘drip-feed’ level of influence). Also known as ‘Cultivation Theory’
- It is difficult to measure the long term effects of the media
- It assumes media personnel like journalists work within the framework and assumptions of the dominant ideology. This fails to recognize that journalists have some independence in their work, and can sometimes be very critical of the dominant ideology and the existing arrangements in society
E.I.- WHY is it so difficult to isolate and mesure the long term effects of the media on audiences?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the two step flow model of audience effects?
Two step flow model = A model of communication that suggests media influence on people is channelled and filtered by influential members of their community (‘opinion formers’)
- It recognizes that the effects of the mass media are not as direct, powerful and influential as the hypodermic syringe model suggests. It suggests that opinion leaders are the ones most subject to media influence, not the whole audience
- It recognizes that audiences are not completely passive and uncritically accepting of direct media messages, but that opinion leaders select, interpret and filter media messages before they reach mass audiences, and it is this process that influences any effects the media have
- It recognizes that media audiences are not a mass of isolated individuals, but that the social groups to which people belong influence the opinions they hold and how they respond to and interpret media content.
E.I. - WHY is it important to consider the role of ‘opinion leaders’ when examining the effect of the media on audiences? HOW might we apply this perspective to the use of social networking sites such as twitter?
What are some weaknesses and criticisms of the two step flow model of audience effects?
Two step flow model = A model of communication that suggests media influence on people is channelled and filtered by influential members of their community (‘opinion formers’)
- There are probably more than 2 steps in the media’s influence. Media content could be selected and interpreted by many different individuals in different groups. E.g. parents (as opinion leaders) may have one view, an ‘opinion-leading’ workmate another view etc. This might mean intepretations of media content get bounced around in discussions in a variety of groups, creating many steps in the flow of media influence
- It suggests that people are very vulnerable to influence and manipulation by opinion leaders. It does not recognize that people may have views, opinions and experiences of their own on which to base their views of media content
E.I. - WHY might the people who are most at risk of being influenced by the media not have access to an opinion leader who might help interpret media content in a healthy way?
How much time should I spend on the Media section of the C1 exam?
You should spend between 15 - 20 minutes on the 15 mark question (compelsory question)
You should spend between 40 - 45 minutes on the 35 mark question (choose one question only from the two provided)
Watch the following screencast for more information:
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the uses and gratifications model?
Uses and gratifications model = a research approach focused on the active selection and use of the media by individuals in order to fulfil needs and achieve pleasure
- This model recognizes the active role of media audiences.
- Like pluralism, it recognizes that audiences have the power to direct media content: a failure by media companies to satisfy audience pleasures will mean no viewers, listeners or readers – and therefore no advertisers – and so the companies or the particular channel, radio station or newspaper will risk going out of business
- It recognizes that the uses and gratifications of the media are likely to vary from one individual to the next, and these will be influenced by factors such as their age, gender, social class or ethnicity, and their previous experiences, attitudes and values
E.I. - HOW does this model recognise the active role of media audiences? WHY does this perspective say that we need to get away from the habit of thinking in terms of what the media do to people and substitute for it the idea of what people do with the media?
What are some weaknesses and criticisms of the uses and gratifications model?
Uses and gratifications model = A research approach focused on the active selection and use of the media by individuals in order to fulfil needs and achieve pleasure
- Marxists argue that the model underestimates the power and influence of the media and media companies to shape and influence the choices people make and the ‘pleasures’ they derive from the media
- It focuses too much on the use of the media by individuals. It doesn’t allow for the group aspects of media audiences, unlike the two-step flow and cultural effects models which recognize that people often relate to the media in social groups, and it is these group settings that will influence their uses and gratifications
E.I. - HOW might the media create ‘false needs’ through devices like advertising?
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate a claim?
These are questions that typically ask you to ‘evaluate/assess a view’, or start with the command ‘to what extent’
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the decoding model?
Decoding model = This theory by Hall suggests that the content of the media is always capable of being decoded in a variety of ways. E.g. The way in which the news is interpreted may depend on the social and cultural backgrounds of different sections of the audience
- It recognises that media audiences are not passive absorbers of media messages, but that they can and do respond differently to media content
- It takes into account the ways in which audiences actively interpret media content in the light of their own social circumstances and experiences, and their values and beliefs
- Morley’s (1980) research into how audiences interpreted the content of a well-known 1970s evening news programme called Nationwide supported this model. It showed that audiences were very active in their reading of media content and did not automatically accept the media’s perspective on a range of issues
E.I. - WHY might the social circumstances and experiences of audiences influence the way in which they decode media messages? WHY should we see media texts as almost always being polysemic?
What are some weaknesses and criticisms of the decoding model?
Decoding model = This theory by Hall suggests that the content of the media is always capable of being decoded in a variety of ways. E.g. The way in which the news is interpreted may depend on the social and cultural backgrounds of different sections of the audience
- Marxists would argue that this model gives too much emphasis to the active role of media audiences
- Those with power in society (the ‘primary definers’) set the agenda and framework for media content, and over the long term socialisation by the media limits the ability of audiences to resist media messages
E.I. - WHY might it be difficult for audiences to resist the ideolgical power of media messages over time?
What are the most effective ways of revising subject knowledge?
Use the ANSWER method below:
- Ask ‘How’’ and ‘Why’ questions when revising and try to connect ideas (this method is called ‘elaboration’)
- No cramming. Distribute your revision over time and used a spaced system of repetition
- Switch topics regularly when revising (this is called ‘interleaving’ and it will help you to identify connections between different topics)
- Words and visuals. Combine words and visual representations to create two ways of remembering key ideas (this is called ‘dual coding’)
- Examples. Your brain will find it easier to recall abstract ideas if you can relate concepts and theories to concrete examples
- Recall what you know. Scientific evidence suggests that ‘retrieval practice’ is much more effective than rereading and highlighting. Test yourself as much as possible and complete as many practice exam questions as you can. Ask your teacher for feedback on your practice
WATCH THE FOLLOWING VIDEO FOR MORE INFORMATION ON THESE TECHNIQUES: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CPxSzxylRCI
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate a theory?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that would support the view that the content of the media reflects the views of its owners?
- Marxists argue that the owners directly control media content. They manipulate that content and media audiences to protect their profits and spread the dominant ideology of the ruling class
- Curran and Seaton (2010) found evidence that some media owners (e.g. Murdoch & the ‘Press Barons’) interfere in the content of their news media at the expense of the independence of media professionals (e.g. all of Murdoch’s 175 newspapers supported the Iraq War in 2003)
- According to a former Murdoch editor, Eric Beecher, the consistent ideology of Murdoch’s Newspapers is maintained, “by phone and by clone”. This supports the Marxist view that Media owners can (and do) control the content of the media
- The Neo-Marxist view recognizes the power of owners, but, unlike the traditional Marxist approach, it suggests that owners rarely have direct operational control of the media. However, media professionals are inclined to side with media owners on most issues due to their own privileged backgrounds
E.I. - WHY are media professionals often from very privileged backgrounds? WHY does Murdoch exercise editorial control on major issues such as Europe and General Elections? WHY do media professionals (editors/journalists) have to run the media within the boundaries set by owners?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSzh2KjSz6s&feature=youtu.be&t=44s
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that the content of the media reflects the views of its owners?
- Pluralists such as John Fiske argue that media content is driven not by the views of owners, but by the fight for profits through high circulation and audience figures. Therefore the media have to be responsive to audience tastes and wishes
- Pluralists would argue that there is a wide range of opinion in the media and that the media have to provide what the audience - not the owners – want
- Media concentration has created huge companies that are too large to be controlled by a single owner. Furthermore some companies are owned by many shareholders rather than one person or a family
- The rise of new digital media and the growth of citizen journalism have undermined the traditional influence of media owners. More people, not just media owners and professionals, have the opportunity to communicate with vast numbers of other people thanks to Web 2.0
E.I. - WHY does the growth of ‘citizen journalism’ support the Pluralist view? WHY might the views of the audience be more important than the views of either the owners or media professionals? WHY might owners have very little control over global media conglomerates?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSzh2KjSz6s&feature=youtu.be&t=10m32s
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate sociological explanations?
Explain the influence that media professionals can have on the content of the news
Media professionals = the people who work for media owners (professional journalists, editors)
- Ownership of media corporations often lie in the hands of shareholders who often have no connection at all to the everyday workings of the business. Neo-Marxists therefore argue we are increasingly seeing ownership and control of large media companies become separated
- This means that the day to day operational control of the content of the news mainly rests with media professionals. They act as ‘gate-keepers’ with the power to set the news agenda
- Galtung & Ruge argue that media professionals internalise general guidelines or criteria that they use to determine the worth of a news story. These guidelines are known as ‘news values’
- Becker suggests that media professional journalists operate within a hierarchy of credibility where they are more likely to trust or believe the views of those in positions of power when creating news media content. In contrast those without power are less trusted by media professionals
- However the influence that media professionals can have on the content of the news has been reduced by the reduction of staff and other cost cutting. According to Davies journalists don’t have much time & simply reproduce second hand information that is fed to them by the government and PR agencies. This is known as ‘churnalism’
E.I. - WHY might many media professionals share a similar ideology to the owners they work for? HOW can the initial media coverage of the Hillsborough disaster be related to Becker’s point about journalist operating within a ‘hierarchy of credibility’? WHY might it be argued that those working in Public Relations (PR) have more control over the content of the news than media professionals?
Outline and explain media representations of children and young people
Representation = Describes the ways in which the media show the audience a version of the world. These are shaped, selected and edited to influence audience perceptions and are often highly distorted and biased
Under-representation = When something doesn’t appear in the media as often as in reality
Misrepresentation = Giving a false or misleading account of the nature of something (e.g. a stereotypical representation)
- According to research by ‘Children’s Express’ in 1998 (children’s media organisation) children are often represented as consumers of toys and games in advertising; as accessories to enhance their parents’ image; and as symbols representing innocence. They concluded that children are likely to be represented as stereotypes rather than as independent people
- Youth (from around age 15 to the early 20s) are often the subject of negative media stereotyping as a ‘problem group’
- They are often represented in the context of crime and deviance. Such images are typically associated with young working class males, with an over-representation of young Black males according to Van Dijk’s content analysis of tens of thousands of news items across the world over several decades
- They are often labelled as ‘folk devils’ and used as scapegoats in the media for social problems, creating moral panics. The majority of moral panics since the 1950s have been manufactured around concerns about young people’s behaviour such as their membership of specific ‘deviant’ sub-cultures or because their behaviour (e.g., drug taking or binge drinking) has attracted the disapproval of those in authority
- Wayne et al. (2008) conducted a content analysis of 2130 news items across all the main television channels during May 2006. They found that young people were mainly represented as a violent threat to society. Moreover they argue that it distracts from the real problems that young people face such as unemployment. In a similar vein, a study by Women in Journalism, Hoodies or Altar Boys (2009), examined how teenage males are frequently demonised in the media
- There is a whole media industry aimed at socially constructing youth in terms of lifestyle and identity. Magazines are produced specifically for young people. Record companies, internet music download sites, mobile telephone companies and radio stations all specifically target and attempt to shape the musical tastes of young people. Social Networking sites allow youth to project their identities around the world and also challenge some of the stereotypes identified above.
E.I. - WHY are young people and youth cultures demonised by the media? HOW do the media socially construct youth cultures?
Outline and explain media representations of older people
Representation = Describes the ways in which the media show the audience a version of the world. These are shaped, selected and edited to influence audience perceptions and are often highly distorted and biased
Under-representation = When something doesn’t appear in the media as often as in reality
Misrepresentation = Giving a false or misleading account of the nature of something (e.g. a stereotypical representation)
- Older people – are often largely invisible in the media. For example content analysis conducted by Age Concern (2000) found that although 21 per cent of the population was aged 65+ only 7 per cent of representations on television were of that age group
- Sociological studies show that when the elderly do appear in the media, they tend to be portrayed in the following one-dimensional ways. Typical stereotypes include: figures of fun; being forgetful and difficult; in ill health; being a burden, and stubborn and grumpy
- However recent research suggests that media producers may be gradually reinventing how they deal with the elderly, especially as they realise that this group may have disposable incomes, i.e. extra money to spend on consumer goods (‘the grey pound’)
- E.g. Williams and Ylanne (2009) conducted a content analysis on five years of adverts in 121 magazines. They found that 19.5% of the elderly people featured in the ads were lively, active and enjoying life
- However their research still showed that the elderly are usually only featured for age specific reasons (such as to market a product aimed at the elderly): rather than depicted as ‘just people’ the elderly are categorised as somehow separate to other adults
E.I. WHY are older people underrepresented in the media? WHY might media representations of older people feed into further ageism and marginalisation of the elderly in society?
Outline and explain media representations of disability
Representation = Describes the ways in which the media show the audience a version of the world. These are shaped, selected and edited to influence audience perceptions and are often highly distorted and biased
Under-representation = When something doesn’t appear in the media as often as in reality
Misrepresentation = Giving a false or misleading account of the nature of something (e.g. a stereotypical representation)
► Barnes identified the following media stereotypes of disabled people:
- As pitiable or pathetic - e.g. in TV charity appeals
- As sinister or evil - as nasty criminals in films
- As supper cripples - e.g. in media coverage of the Paralympics
- As laughable or an object of ridicule - e.g. the ‘village idiot’
- As non-sexual - lacking sexual feelings
Barnes argues that the media rarely portray people with disabilities as normal people who just happen to have a disability. Instead their disability constitutes a master-status. They consequently fail to reflect the real, everyday experience of disability
► The Glasgow Media Group found that disabled people were becoming even less likely to be portrayed in sympathetic and deserving terms, and more likely to be portrayed as undeserving as benefit ‘scoungers’, etc.
E.I. - WHY might the disabled be more likely to be portrayed as ‘underserving’? WHY does the media often represent an individual’s disability as their ‘master status’?
Outline and explain media representations of the middle and upper classes
Middle class = The social class which is situated between the upper and the working class. This has traditionally included most non-manual workers.
Upper class = The wealthy property owning class who own & control major sections of business and who live off dividends from stocks and shares, land (e.g. rents) & inheritance
- The middle class and its lifestyles receive the greatest exposure in the media, and representations are generally positive
- E.g. the middle class family is usually presented as the ‘ideal’ to which people should aspire in advertisements. Leech refers calls this advertising ideal the ‘cereal packet family’, a reference to its ubiquity in advertising campaigns
- Middle class tastes and lifestyles are also often presented in drama and sitcoms as the norm to which everybody should aspire. Glennon and Butsch studied American sitcoms and found that most families shown in the sitcoms were middle class or wealthy
- The upper class is generally presented as being ‘well bred’, cultured and superior
- The lavish lifestyles of the upper class often provide media content for mass audiences. Newman (2006) argues that the tabloid media dedicate a great deal of their content to examining the lives of another section of the wealthy elite, i.e. celebrities and their lavish lifestyles
- Neo-Marxists like the Glasgow Media Group see such representations as a celebration of hierarchy and wealth which promotes the dominant ideology
E.I. WHY are the middle class often presented as the ‘norm’ in the media? HOW might media representations of the upper and middle classes create a ‘myth of meritocracy’?
Outline and explain media representations of men and masculinity
Masculinity = characteristics that are associated with men, which are likely to include dress, speech, types of jobs and family roles
Hegemonic masculinity = A term used to describe the dominant ideas about the role of men in society. i.e. ‘The provider, the protector and the impregnator’ (Gilmore)
- Men are portrayed more in the public sphere outside the home and in a wide range of roles, often carrying high status than women’s
- The study Boys to Men: Media Messages about Masculinity (1999) identified the following stereotypical representations of male characters in the media: Jokers - who use laughter to avoid displaying seriousness or emotion; jocks - who show aggression to demonstrate power and strength; strong silent types - who are in control, act decisively, and avoid weakness by not talking about their feelings or showing emotion; big shots - who are economically and socially successful; action heroes - who are tough, strong and show extreme aggression and often violence; buffoons - who are totally inept at parenting or housework
- Gauntlett suggests that the media are providing a wider range of representations of masculinity beyond traditional hegemonic masculinity
- The male body is increasingly objectified in advertising in much the same way that women’s bodies have always been used
- Gauntlett also argues that Men’s magazines are increasingly covering concerns that were once restricted to women - e.g. Diet, health and cosmetics
E.I. - WHY might it be argued that some of the stereotypes identified above are damaging to many boys and men? HOW are some representations moving beyond hegemonic masculinity?
Outline and explain social policies and other forms of formal regulation that control the media in the UK
Social policy = actions the government carries out, or actions political parties propose to do, in order to exert an influence over a specific area of social life, such as education, the family, media or society more generally
- The law restricts what can be said in the media e.g. Libel laws, laws against inciting religious or racial hatred
- Ofcom (the Office of Communications) - the official media regulator set up by the government. Ofcom can refuse to issue broadcasting licences to those whom it deems are unfit and unsuitable
- The BBC Trust regulates the BBC, and seeks to ensure the BBC remains independent
- The Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO) self-regulates the newspaper industry. However IPSO is often criticised for being very weak by the Labour Party who would like to set up a new regulator as recommended by the Leveson Inquiry
- The new media is more varied and difficult to regulate. However the British government has also introduced a range of measures to try and impose some control over the internet. E.g. since 2011 internet service providers (ISP) such as BT and Talk Talk have been required by the government to ‘opt in’ if they want to view ‘sexually explicit content’ in a bid to restrict access to pornography. Furthermore the government is able to prevent consumers from visiting certain websites by asking ISPs to block access to them
E.I. - HOW might it still be possible to get round government controls of the internet? WHY is IPSO heavily criticised (see link below)?
Outline & explain Feminist views of the media
Feminist views: Feminism isn’t a single, unified theory – instead there are a variety of ‘feminisms’. The main types are Liberal Feminism, Marxist Feminism & Radical Feminism
- Liberal feminists are concerned about media representations because they believe that the mass media plays a major role, alongside the family and education, in the social construction of gender roles, i.e. how children learn to be feminine or masculine
- Liberal Feminists believe that media representations are slow to change in response to women’s achievements in society. This ‘cultural lag’ is due to the fact that attitudes and ideas change more slowly than social and economic conditions. Women are still ignored or trivialized by the media, although liberal feminists accept that this is happening to a lesser degree than in the past
- Marxist feminists believe that the roots of the stereotypical images of women in the media are economic. They are a by-product of the need of media conglomerates in capitalist societies to make a profit
- For example, a great deal of the content of women’s magazines is shaped by advertising. These types of media make profits from advertising rather than sales, and therefore it is in the interests of these magazines to promote ‘false needs’, around beauty, size and shape, etc., in order to attract advertising revenue from the cosmetic, diet and fashion industries
- Radical feminists feel strongly that the media reproduce patriarchy. In patriarchal societies, men dominate positions of power and control and have a vested interest in keeping women in subordinate positions.
E.I. - HOW might the media reproduce patriarchy? WHY do Pluralists claim that feminist critiques of the media underestimate women’s ability to see through gender stereotyping and manipulation?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the view that the new media have had a positive impact on society?
New media = Media based on digital computers, such as the internet, digital TV and digital radio
‘The medium is the message’ = Marshall McLuhan’s argument that throughout history what has been communicated has been less important than the particular medium through which people communicate. The technology that transfers the message changes us and changes society, the individual, the family, work, leisure and more. We change our technology and then our technology changes us
- More informed consumers, wider choices and more user participation. For example, prosumers (Gauntlett)
- Greater democracy: Paul Mason highlights the ways in which new media provide greater opportunities for ordinary people to influence, hold to account, protest at and organise against governments and corporations, and to indicate change in society; more freedom of ideas and expressions, through citizen journalism, outside the control of established media
- More access to all kinds information from different sources. The world becomes what McLuhan called a ‘global village’ - users from around the world connect and interact with each other instantaneously, making the world like one village or community, promoting cultural diversity and understanding
- Social life and social interaction are enhanced - people can expand their personal boundaries beyond geographical are and immediate social connections through Web 2.0 and wireless communications
E.I. - HOW do recent political protests illustrate point no. 2? WHY is the creation of a ‘global village’ beneficial?
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that the new media have had a positive impact on society?
New media = Media based on digital computers, such as the internet, digital TV and digital radio
‘The medium is the message’ = Marshall McLuhan’s argument that throughout history what has been communicated has been less important than the particular medium through which people communicate. The technology that transfers the message changes us and changes society, the individual, the family, work, leisure and more. We change our technology and then our technology changes us
- Problems of the validity of information – hard to know whether reports are true or exaggerated (‘fake news’)
- Cultural imperialism – the new media have led to the imposition of Western, and especially American, cultural values across the world
- Governments and companies can monitor people’s activity on new media, invading their privacy and leading to new forms of social control based on surveillance (Focault’s ideas about the ‘panoptican’ are relevant here). For example, the whistle blower Edward Snowden revealed a secret surveillance programme operated by the US Government called PRISM
- The lack of regulation – which make it easier to spread harmful things like e.g. child pornography
- For Baudrillard – rather than being enhanced by the proliferation of electronic media, meaning, understanding and substance are being drowned out by noise. According to this view, the more the channels of communication multiply, the more we all suffer from information overload
- Internet bubbles and confirmation bias – “Social media created filters – complex algorithms that looked at what people liked and then fed more of the same back to them. In the process without noticing individuals began to move into bubbles that isolated them from enormous amounts of other information. They only heard and saw what they liked. And the news feed increasingly excluded anything that might challenge people’s pre-existing beliefs” (Adam Curtis, 2016)
- The undermining of human relationships and communities – more social isolation, with people wrapped up in the virtual world of solitary electronic media
- Creates a digital divide in society - Inequality between those who can and those who can’t afford, or don’t have the technology or skills to access, the ‘new media’
E.I. - WHY is ‘cultural imperalism’ a problem? WHY does ‘fake news’ often go viral?
Outline and explain the impact of the globalisation of the media
Globalisation = means societies across the world have become more interconnected
- Electronic media shrink barriers of space and time so that the world has become what McLuhan referred to as a ‘global village’
- Media corporations now operate on a global scale and own media across the world (global media conglomerates)
- The large media corporations produce cultural products designed to be sold on the global mass market to make profits. The media are now spreading a mass culture on a global scale
- This has led to a growing globalisation of popular culture: people in many countries of the world are now exposed to the same cultural products and media content from the globalised culture industry. Ritzer uses the term ‘McDonaldization’ to describe this process of cultural homogenization
- Cultural imperialism – globalisation has arguably led to the imposition of Western, and especially American, cultural values across the world
- In contrast, Pluralists would argue that the global reach of modern media technology actually offers consumers around the world a wide diversity of cultural choices
- Malone argues that the globalisation of the media has produced a hybridisation or mixing of cultures rather than cultural imperialism. People pick ‘n’ mix and draw on both Western/global cultures and their own local cultures (‘glocal’). This means there is more not less cultural diversity in the world
E.I. - WHY might Marxism be critical of many aspects of media globalisation? HOW can you link some of the points above to youth cultures?
Outline and explain the postmodernist view of the media
- Society is now what Baudrillard called media saturated, meaning our view of the world is created and defined by the media
- Media images are what Baudrillard called ‘simulacra’ – reproductions and copies which appear to be showing real events, but have no connection with those real events. The replacement of reality by simulacra creates a hyperreality – a view of the world which is created and defined by the media. The image of an event becomes more real than the event it is meant to be depicting
- The media no longer reflect reality but actively create a hyperreality, leaving audiences confused about what is real and what is media-created
- Postmodernists emphasise the importance and power of the media in forming our sense of personal identity
E.I. - HOW does the election of Donald Trump illustrate some of these arguments (see link below)? HOW does the ‘Wild West’ illustrate the idea of ‘simulacra’? HOW do people use the media to construct their personal identities?
https://www.tutor2u.net/sociology/blog/using-trump-to-help-explore-postmodernism
Outline and explain explanations of the effects of the mass media on audiences
Audience effects theories = Theories that focus on the impact of the media on audiences
- Hypodermic Syringe Model: A theory which argues that the effect of the media on audiences is powerful, uniform, direct and immediate. This perspective therefore views audiences as passive and easily manipulated
- Cultural effects model: This theory argues that the effects of the media on audiences mainly occur through gradual and continuous exposure and persuasion into acceptance of the dominant ideology (i.e. a ‘drip-feed’ level of influence). Also known as ‘Cultivation Theory’
- Two step flow model: A model of communication that suggests media influence on people is channeled and filtered by influential members of their community (‘opinion formers’)
- Uses and gratifications model: A research approach focused on the active selection and use of the media by individuals in order to fulfil needs and achieve pleasure
- Decoding model: This theory by Stuart Hall suggests that the content of the media is always capable of being decoded in a variety of ways. E.g. The way in which the news is interpreted may depend on the social and cultural backgrounds of different sections of the audience.(also known as the ‘Interactive approach’). Depending on their background audiences will either adopt a preferred meaning of media content, a negotiated meaning of the text or an oppositional meaning
E.I. - HOW can the theories above be evaluated?
