carbohydrates in pharmacognosy Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
structurally polyhydroxylated ketones or aldehydes
Can exist as one distinct carbohydrate molecule (monosaccharide) or as repeating structures of the monosaccharide units (oligo-and polysaccharides)
A
carbohydrates
2
Q
derived from photosynthesis
A
monosaccharides
3
Q
involves formation of UDP-monosaccharide
A
oligo- & polysaccharide
4
Q
main organelle for photosynthesis
A
chloroplast
5
Q
site for light reactions
A
surface membrane of the thylakoid
6
Q
Produces ATPs and NADPH that are used by the cell to convert carbon dioxide into an organic molecule
A
calvin cycle
7
Q
initially produces a 3-carbon sugar
which is known as 3-PGAL (3-Phosphoglyceraldehyde) which then produces the sugar CH2O
A
calvin cycle
8
Q
where is glucose stored
A
cytoplasm
9
Q
other name for glucose
A
cystolic sugar, dextrose, blood sugar, grape sugar, physiologic sugar
10
Q
site for calvin cycle/ dark reaction
A
stroma
11
Q
where is sucrose synthesized?
A
cytosol
12
Q
what enzymes helped in synthesizing sucrose
A
sucrose 6-phosphate synthase & sucrose 6-phosphate phosphatase
13
Q
sweetest disaccharide
A
Sucrose
14
Q
sweetest monosaccharide
A
fructose
15
Q
where is glucose added in the growing chain of polysaccharide
A
nonreducing end
16
Q
animal starch, reserved food for human cells, specifically the liver cells and the muscle cells
A
glycogen
17
Q
smallest unit of carbohydrates
A
monosaccharides
18
Q
monosaccharides are classified by:
A
functional group (aldose vs ketose) & number of carbons
19
Q
D-or L-isomerism depends on the ______
A
penultimate carbon
20
Q
characteristics of monosaccharides
A
Crystalline, water-soluble and sweet
21
Q
example of aldopentose
A
ribose, arabinose
22
Q
example of aldohexose
A
Glucose, Galactose
23
Q
example of ketohexose
A
fructose
24
Q
example of ketopentose
A
ribulose
25
L-glucose (less or more active)
less active
26
D-glucose (less or more active)
more active
27
5 membered ring
furanose
28
6 membered ring
pyranose
29
anomeric carbon
carbon w/ 2 oxygens
30
anomeric OH down
alpha
31
anomeric OH up
beta
32
glucose chemical nature
aldohexose
33
source of glucose
Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch (Starch is a polysaccharide of glucose)
34
use of glucose
Sweetening agent
35
[derivatives of glucose]
thick, syrupy liquid from incomplete hydrolysis of starch
liquid glucose
36
[derivatives of glucose]
- electrolyte replenisher, Given through IV
- Used to treat low blood calcium, high blood potassium, and magnesium toxicity
Calcium gluconate
37
[derivatives of glucose]
- calcium sources from 7C and 5C glucose derivatives
- Given through IV
- Used for hypocalcemia (when blood’s calcium level is low)
Calcium gluceptate and levulinate
38
[derivatives of glucose]
hematinic, given for iron deficiency anemia
Ferrous gluconate
39
Is glucose reducing or non-reducing?
reducing
40
other name of fructose
Levulose, fruit sugar
41
chemical nature of fructose
Ketohexose
In nature, in furanose form; isolated in crystalline form as pyranose
42
source of fructose
isomerization of glucose by Streptomyces through the enzyme glucose isomerase
43
natural source of fructose
Fruits and honey; hydrolysis of inulin
44
uses of fructose
Food for diabetic patients, for infant feeding formula, for fructose injection
45
chemical nature of galactose
Aldohexose
C4 epimer of glucose
46
source of galactose
Milk (as lactose) and neuronal fibers (as galactoceramides)
Convertible to glucose in the human body (enters glycolysis after 4 steps)
47
other name of xylose
wood sugar
48
chemical nature of xylose
aldopentose
49
source of xylose
Boiled corn cobs, straw, heartwood of deciduous trees, and other materials soaked in dilute acids to hydrolyze
its polymer form xylan
50
uses of xylose
Diagnostic aid in conditions with intestinal malabsorption (ex. Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, etc.)
51
Present in hemicellulose
xylose
52
Can be used as a sweetener and at the same time they can be converted into ethanol
xylose
53
Carbohydrates that have 3 to 9 monomeric units but there are books that say that even disaccharides are examples of ______
oligosaccharides
54
glucose + glucose via alpha 1-->4 glycosidic bond
maltose
55
source of maltose
diastatic fermentation of barley (Hordeum vulgare) and other grains
56
use of maltose
Sweetener, tonicity adjuster, component of beers
57
synonyms of sucrose
Table sugar, saccharum
58
Glucose + fructose
sucrose
59
negative on Benedict’s, Fehling’s, Barfoed’s, or Tollen’s tests. non reducing sugar
sucrose, trehalose
60
sources of sucrose
● Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) through limp slivers called cossettes
● Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
● Sugar maple (Acer saccharum)
61
uses of sucrose
Demulcent, coating agent, sweetening agent, syrups, preservative, anti-oxidant
62
sucrose biosynthesis
G6P can be converted to UDP-glucose. Then, UDP- glucose goes through 2 steps to become sucrose in plants
63
Found in brown seaweed, widely distributed in fungi
trehalose
64
Glucose + glucose via α-(1->1)-α glycosidic bond
trehalose
65
trehalose is used as a supplement for diabetes (T/F)
T
66
Glucose + galactose on a β(1->4) glycosidic bond
lactose
67
source: Milk of cow (Bos taurus)
● From the crystallization of whey, a by-product of cheese production
lactose
68
use of lactose
Tablet diluent
For uniform distribution of ingredient and increase the size
69
[derivatives of lactose]
fat globules united by churning (globules on top)
butter
70
[derivatives of lactose]
liquid after globules unite (milk left below)
buttermilk
71
[derivatives of lactose]
milk without cream/globules
skimmed milk
72
[derivatives of lactose]
(coagulated casein) – skimmed milk treated with rennin/rennet
○ Further treated/fermented to become cheese
coagulum
73
[derivatives of lactose]
skimmed milk without coagulated proteins
whey
74
[variations of milk]
partially evaporated, sweetened milk
○ It is very viscous due to addition of a lot of sugar
condensed milk
75
[variations of milk]
unsweetened milk
evaporated milk
76
[variations of milk]
milk evaporated with malt extract
malted milk
77
[variations of milk]
alcoholic beverage made from fermented
mare's milk; made originally by nomads of central Asia
kumyss
78
chemical nature of lactulose
Product from the alkaline rearrangement (tautomerization) of lactose
● Where glucose is transformed to fructose
79
source of lactulose
Semi-synthetic
80
use of lactulose
Laxative (Dulphalac), employed for a disease known as Hepatic Encephalopathy
81
lactulose is somewhat toxic to renal tissues (T/F)
T
82
Malatose group (2 glucose 1→ 4 glycosidic bond)+ glucose residue
maltotriose
83
products of partial hydrolysis of starch (amylase, glucosidase)
α-glucosidase inhibitors – inhibits intestinal absorption of sugars; an oral hypoglycemic agent (specifically for postprandial sugar)
dextrins
84
glu + glu + fru (from Gentiana spp.)
gentianose
85
glu + gal + fru (from many seeds, such as cottonseed)
raffinose
86
glu + gal + gal + fru (from Stachys japonica)
stachyose
87
Plant acids are products of formation of carboxylic groups. (T/F)
T
88
Sugar alcohols are products of reduction of an aldose sugar? (T/F)
T
89
Which of the following sugar acids have the formula of C4H6O6
Formic
Oxalic
Tartaric
Citric
Lactic
Tartaric
90
Most important sugars
aldehydes
91
gives rise to sugar ACIDS (functional group is carboxylic acid)
oxidation
92
gives rise to sugar ALCOHOLS
reduction
93
products from oxidation
cherry juice & plant acids
94
Organic acids derived from plants containing 2-6 C atoms and 2-3 carboxyl groups
plant acids
95
uses of plant acids
Acidulants in effervescent formulations/ component of buffers
● Acidulants to control the pH
● Act as anticoagulant by chelating calcium in the blood
96
● Related acids – isocitric acid (isomer), aconitic acid (dehydrated form)
● Tricarboxylic acid that is commonly found in citrus fruits
● Used as an excipient in pharmaceutical preparations due to its antioxidant property
● Used to maintain the stability of active ingredients
● Used as a preservative
citric acid (6C)
97
● Acidulant in infant feeding formula
● Sugar used for infant feeding is fructose
● Product of anaerobic fermentation of glucose
lactic acid (3C)
98
● By-product of wine industry
● Present in grapes and tamarind
● Imparts a tart taste
● An important solid acidulant
● Most water-soluble
tartaric acid (4C)
99
Present in apple
malic acid (4C)
100
● Present in kamias (Averrhoa bilimbi), balimbing (Averrhoa carambola), and gabi (Colocasia esculenta); oxidation product of ethylene glycol poisoning
● Toxic at high concentrations (5 to 15 grams) and may cause toxic poisoning in humans
● Clinical manifestations are convulsion and cardiovascular collapse
oxalic acid (2C)
101
● Ant bites, volatile poison (oxidation product of methanol poisoning)
○ Lambanog - can cause methanol poisoning
● Simplest
● Methanol ingestion can cause histotoxic hypoxia
● Sufficiently large doses of Formic acid cause unconsciousness and death
● Formic acid from methanol ingestion can cause acidosis which can lead to urinary acidification
formic acid (1C)
102
● Present in onion varieties which make it resistant to attacks of a particular fungus
Protocatechuic acid
103
● Precursor of aromatic compounds/ amino acids
● Very important compound in the production of secondary metabolites
● acid pathways
● Examples: alkaloids, glycosides, caffein, vanillin
● The first molecule of _______ was isolated from an anise fruit
shikimic acid
104
● Cofactor of collagen hydroxylases
● Also called vitamin c
● Deficiency of vitamin C is called scurvy
● Commonly associated with natural water-soluble Vitamin C
● Boosts your immune system because this is a very powerful reducing agent
ascorbic acid
105
examples of a-hydroxy acid
lactic, tartaric, citric, malic
106
what is a-hydroxy acid used for?
Used for skin exfoliation, Exfoliates the surface cells, provides extra emollient for very dry skin, renews, smooths, and softens
107
Which plant active is the precursor or fatty acid
Acetic Acid
108
What is the product when there is reduction
Sugar ethanol
109
products of sugar metabolism from reduction
ethanol, mannitol, sorbitol
110
source of cherry juice
Ripe fruit of cherry (Prunus cerasus)
111
main component of cherry juice
Malic acid
112
uses of cherry juice
Preparation of cherry syrup to mask the taste of sour drugs
*Natural cherry juice contains pectin, which causes incompatibilities especially to alcoholic preparations; in order to treat this, 0.1% benzoic acid is added and left for a week
113
ethanol chemical formula
C2H50H
114
source of ethanol
Fermentation of yeast (Lactic acid fermentation)
(if for wine production), catalytic hydration of ethylene (if for solvent/ disinfectant purpose)
● Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Baker’s yeast)
● Saccharomyces carlsbergensis
115
usp definition of ethanol
94.9% w/v (92.3% w/w) at 15.56oC
(Not more than 96%)
116
uses of ethanol
low concentration --- CNS stimulant
higher concentration --- CNS depressant
117
ABV of Brandy, Whiskey, and Rum
40% alcohol
118
ABV of beer
3-13%
119
ABV of wine
8-14%
120
from distillation of wine (grapes)
Brandy
121
from distillation of malted grain
whiskey
122
from distillation of fermented molasses
rum
123
source of mannitol
Manna (Fraxinus ornus)
124
Mannitol is commonly produced today by
hydrogenation of fructose (Ketose-C2)
125
uses of mannitol
Osmotic diuretic (IV) - for urination, kidney failure, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressures (increase the excretion of fluids and ions)
- it inhibits reabsorption of water and sodium
osmotic laxative (oral) - to treat constipation; can use lactulose
- pull water from the surrounding tissues to soften the stool
126
synonym of sorbitol
Glucitol
127
source of sorbitol
Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia)
Nowadays, is produced by Bacterial biotechnology.
128
use of sorbitol
Sweetener (tastes half as sweet as sucrose)
129
It is not absorbed on oral ingestion so it is used in the manufacture of toothpastes and chewing gums because of its humectant properties (moisturizer). An inert compound
sorbitol
130
by-product of glucose metabolism whenever a person has hyperglycemia (via the polyol pathway).
sorbitol
131
pharmaceutical carrier for cosmetics industry, sorbitol is used as an emulsion stabilizer
Produced via catalytic hydrogenation of D-glucose to D-sorbitol
sorbitol
132
Glucose accumulation can lead to sorbitol excess, which depletes NADPH levels -> lower antioxidant activity -> possible oxidative damage to cells and microvasculature (especially in diabetics)
polyol pathway
133
polyol pathway is good (T/F)
F
Glucose reacts with aldose reductase to create sorbitol, then reacted with sorbitol dehydrogenase to make fructose. Pag konti ang NADH bababa yung antioxidant activity ( low glutathione level)–can cause retinopathy. Formation of sorbitol, increase in NAD and NADH can cause retinopathy that is what POLYOL PATHWAY IS BAD
134
Which of the following carbohydrate contain the a1-4, a1-6 glycosidic bond
A. Starch (Amylose and Amylopectin)
B. Glycogen(Glucose)
C. Dextran
D. Both A and B
E. Both A B and D
Both A and B
135
most abundant carbohydrate on earth
cellulose
136
2nd most abundant carbohydrate on earth
hemicellulose
137
3rd most abundant carbohydrate on earth
lignin
138
○ Consists of only one type of monomer which isexemplified
○ Although they have the same type of sugar monomers, branching occurs at a specific part of the chain (ex. every 20 ft.)
○ Starch (amylose, amylopectin) and glycogen
Homopolysaccharides
139
○ Several types of monomers are present in a chain
○ Gums and mucilage
Heteropolysaccharides
140
enumerate the polysaccharides
starch, glycogen, inulin, dextran, cellulose, gums & mucilages, pectins, glycoaminoglycans
141
enumerate the monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose, xylose
142
enumerate the oligosaccharides
maltose, sucrose, trehalose, lactose, lactulose, maltotriose, dextrins, gentianose, raffinose, stachyose
143
Polymer of glucose linked by α(1->4) and α(1->6) glycosidic bonds
starch
144
sources of starch
mature grain of corn (Zea mays), mature grain of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum)
145
uses of starch
Tablet filler, binder and disintegrant
Antidote for iodine poisoning
146
[MODIFIED STARCHES]
Starch that is chemically or mechanically processed to rupture all or part of the granules; tablet binder; Comes from waxy corn or tapioca
Pregelatinized starch
147
[MODIFIED STARCHES]
Disintegrating agent
Sodium starch glycollate
148
[MODIFIED STARCHES]
Plasma expander at 6%;
Most molecular substitution
Hetastarch
149
Enzymes that break down starch
Amylases
150
α-amylases
amylopsin, ptyalin
Random splitting of α-1,4 links
151
Enzyme in pancreatic juice
amylopsin
152
saliva
ptyalin
153
End-product of alpha-amylases
mixture of glucose, maltose, amylopectin
154
β-amylases
Capable of splitting α-1,4 bonds
Remove maltose unit from non-reducing end of polysaccharides at branching points: maltose & dextrins (incomplete hydrolysis)
155
end product of beta-amylases
nearly pure maltose
156
Linear
250-300 units Linked by α (1→4) only
amylose (β-amylose)
157
More soluble (amylose/ amylopectin)
amylose (β-amylose)
158
iodine test: deep blue
amylose (β-amylose)
159
25% abundance
amylose (β-amylose)
160
Branched
1000 or more glucose units
Linked by α (1→4) with α (1→6) every 25 glucose units
amylopectin (α-amylose)
161
Less soluble (provides the paste-forming property of starch) (amylose/ amylopectin)
amylopectin (α-amylose)
162
iodine test (blue violet/ purple)
amylopectin (α-amylose)
163
75% abundance
amylopectin (α-amylose)
164
Starch is stored in plastids
amyloplast
165
Stored in oil
elaioplast
166
Chlorophyll pigment
chloroplast
167
used in starch biosynthesis
GLUCOSE-1-PHOSPHATE
168
There is a removal of inorganic phosphate. Product is ___
amylopectin
