Cardio- AI Generated Flashcards
(230 cards)
1
Q
What is the pathogenesis of Acute Coronary Syndrome/MI?
A
Coronary artery obstruction decreases blood supply to the myocardium, causing ischemic damage. This damage is reversible if it lasts less than 20 minutes and mostly affects the left ventricle.
2
Q
What are the symptoms and complications of Acute Coronary Syndrome/MI?
A
Symptoms include pain in the jaw, neck, or back, weakness, lightheadedness, syncope, chest pain/discomfort, and shortness of breath. Complications can include arrhythmias, cardiogenic shock, pericarditis, myocardial rupture, and heart failure.
3
Q
What are the risk factors for Acute Coronary Syndrome/MI?
A
Risk factors include coronary artery disease, age over 65, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking, diabetes, drug use, anxiety, and a history of previous myocardial infarction.
4
Q
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Acute Coronary Syndrome/MI?
A
ECG may show Q waves, ST elevation, and T-wave inversion. Lab tests include elevated troponin I and T, CK-MB, myoglobin, AST, and LDH-1 greater than LDH-2.
5
Q
What is the treatment for Acute Coronary Syndrome/MI?
A
Treatment includes oxygen therapy, aspirin, nitroglycerin, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, anticoagulant medications, fibrinolytic therapy, and angioplasty.
6
Q
What is the pathogenesis of Cardiomyopathy?
A
Dilated: 4-chamber hypertrophy, unexplained dilation and impaired systolic function in one or both ventricles.
7
Q
What are the symptoms and complications of Cardiomyopathy?
A
Symptoms include palpitations, dizziness, angina with exercise, dyspnea on exertion, and complications such as arrhythmias and sudden death.
8
Q
What are the risk factors for Cardiomyopathy?
A
Risk factors include African Americans, males, alcohol (thiamine deficiency), genetic factors, myocarditis, chemotherapy, cocaine, heroin, organic solvents, peripartum, and infections (coxsackie virus).
9
Q
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Cardiomyopathy?
A
Physical exam findings include mitral/tricuspid regurgitation, S3 and S4 heart sounds, narrow pulse pressure, CBC, CMP, BNP, cardiac enzymes, ECG, nonspecific ST-T wave changes and Q waves, CXR showing an enlarged heart, and angiography to exclude ischemic heart disease.
10
Q
What is the treatment for Cardiomyopathy?
A
Treatment includes management of CHF symptoms, avoiding strenuous exercise, beta-blockers, avoiding drugs that decrease preload (diuretics) or increase force of contraction (digitalis).
11
Q
What is the pathogenesis of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?
A
Myocardial hypertrophy with greater hypertrophy of the interventricular septum than the left ventricular wall itself, leading to obstruction of left ventricle outflow tract.
12
Q
What are the symptoms and complications of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?
A
Symptoms include palpitations, dizziness, angina with exercise, dyspnea on exertion, and complications such as sudden death in young athletes and arrhythmias.
13
Q
What are the risk factors for Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?
A
Risk factors include autosomal dominant inheritance (Chromosome 14 missense mutation).
14
Q
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?
A
Physical exam findings include split S2, S4, crescendo-decrescendo murmur (changes with posture), palpable double apical impulse, ECG with abnormal Q waves and short PR interval, and echocardiogram for hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.
15
Q
What is the treatment for Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?
A
Treatment includes avoiding strenuous exercise, beta-blockers, avoiding drugs that decrease preload or increase force of contraction.
16
Q
What is the pathogenesis of Restrictive Cardiomyopathy?
A
Impaired ventricular filling or decreased ventricular compliance with normal systolic function.
17
Q
What are the symptoms and complications of Restrictive Cardiomyopathy?
A
Symptoms include worsening shortness of breath, exercise intolerance, and fatigue. Complications include CHF with normal left ventricular systolic function and arrhythmias.
18
Q
What are the risk factors for Restrictive Cardiomyopathy?
A
Risk factors include autoimmune disorders, cocaine, toxin exposure (arsenic, radiation, carbon monoxide), amyloidosis, sarcoidosis, myocardial fibrosis after open-heart surgery.
19
Q
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Restrictive Cardiomyopathy?
A
Physical exam findings include elevated JVP, normal S1/S2, possible loud S3, mitral and tricuspid regurgitation, ECG with nonspecific ST changes and low QRS voltage, CXR showing mild cardiac enlargement, and ventricular biopsy to determine etiology.
20
Q
What is the treatment for Restrictive Cardiomyopathy?
A
Treatment includes managing underlying disease, diuretics, vasodilators, ACE inhibitors, anticoagulation, and potentially heart transplant.
21
Q
What is the pathogenesis of CHF?
A
Inability of ventricle to be filled with (diastolic dysfunction) or to properly pump blood outwards (systolic dysfunction).
22
Q
What are the symptoms and complications of CHF?
A
Symptoms include fatigue, syncope, hypotension, cool extremities, dyspnea, orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, and cough. Complications include cachexia of cardiac tissue, impaired kidney function, fluid build-up, arrhythmias, angina, and MI.
23
Q
What are the risk factors for CHF?
A
Risk factors include CAD, age over 65, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking, diabetes, drug use, anxiety, and a history of previous myocardial infarction.
24
Q
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for CHF?
A
Serum BNP is elevated. Always get a baseline echocardiogram for new CHF diagnosis.
25
What is the treatment for CHF?
Treatment includes ACE inhibitors, beta blockers, loop diuretics, digoxin, anti-arrhythmic drugs, and anticoagulants.
26
What is the pathogenesis of Right-Sided CHF?
Most often results from left-sided heart failure. Cor pulmonale: isolated right-sided heart failure due to pulmonary cause.
27
What are the symptoms and complications of Right-Sided CHF?
Symptoms include anorexia, GI distress, weight gain, dependent edema, and increased peripheral venous pressure. Complications include portal hypertension, ascites, and pleural effusion.
28
What are the risk factors for Right-Sided CHF?
Risk factors include left-sided heart failure, pulmonary disease (emphysema), mitral stenosis, left ventricular failure, CAD, hypertension, diabetes, cardiomyopathies, and valvular heart disease.
29
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Right-Sided CHF?
Physical exam findings include S3 heart sounds, tricuspid regurgitation, rales, JVD, pitting edema, hepatosplenomegaly, pulsatile liver, and clubbing.
30
What is the treatment for Right-Sided CHF?
Treatment includes managing left-sided heart failure, treating pulmonary diseases, and diuretics.
31
What is the pathogenesis of Left-Sided CHF?
Elevated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure leading to pulmonary congestion.
32
What are the symptoms and complications of Left-Sided CHF?
Symptoms include fatigue, syncope, hypotension, cool extremities, dyspnea, orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, and cough. Complications include pulmonary hypertension leading to right-sided heart failure.
33
What are the risk factors for Left-Sided CHF?
Risk factors include CAD, hypertension, diabetes, myocardial disease, and valvular heart disease.
34
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Left-Sided CHF?
Physical exam findings include S3 heart sounds, rales, crackles, mitral regurgitation, peripheral cyanosis, slow capillary refill, and decreased peripheral blood pressure. Labs may show heart failure cells in the lungs.
35
What is the treatment for Left-Sided CHF?
Treatment includes ACE inhibitors, beta blockers, loop diuretics, digoxin, anti-arrhythmic drugs, and anticoagulants.
36
What is the pathogenesis of Endocarditis?
Infection of cardiac endothelium, commonly bacterial or fungal, with prominent valvular involvement.
37
What are the symptoms and complications of Endocarditis?
Symptoms include fever, weakness, night sweats, weight loss, anorexia, SOB, chest pain, and flank pain. Complications include distal embolization if vegetations fragment and travel.
38
What are the risk factors for Endocarditis?
Risk factors include prosthetic heart valve, congenital heart disease, mitral valve prolapse, cardiac transplant, IV catheters, IV drug users, and a history of endocarditis.
39
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Endocarditis?
Physical exam findings include regurgitant murmurs, splinter hemorrhages, Janeway’s lesions, petechiae, splenomegaly, microscopic hematuria, immune complex vasculitis, and positive blood cultures in 80% of cases.
40
What is the treatment for Endocarditis?
Treatment includes IV antibiotics for at least 4-6 weeks and monitoring for complications.
41
What is the pathogenesis of Pericarditis?
Idiopathic most common, often assumed to be viral, but can also be bacterial or fungal.
42
What are the symptoms and complications of Pericarditis?
Symptoms include chest pain (better leaning forward, worse leaning back), fever, and malaise. Complications include post-MI due to myocardial inflammation.
43
What are the risk factors for Pericarditis?
Risk factors include Coxsackie B virus, TB, histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, Staph aureus, and Strep pneumonia.
44
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Pericarditis?
Physical exam findings include the diagnostic triad of chest pain, friction rub, and ECG changes. Labs may show elevated ESR/CRP and troponins I & T. CXR may indicate large pericardial effusion.
45
What is the treatment for Pericarditis?
Treatment includes sending to ER for pericardiocentesis if necessary, full-dose NSAIDs for 7-14 days, and colchicine to reduce the rate of recurrent pericarditis.
46
What is the pathogenesis of Rheumatic Heart Disease?
Acute complication of group A beta-hemolytic Strep pyogenes infection, occurring several weeks after strep throat is cleared.
47
What are the symptoms and complications of Rheumatic Heart Disease?
Symptoms include sore throat, fever, malaise, headache, and leukocytosis. Complications include mitral and/or aortic insufficiency/stenosis.
48
What are the risk factors for Rheumatic Heart Disease?
Risk factors include median age of 10 years but 20% in adults, worse prognosis for females.
49
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Rheumatic Heart Disease?
Physical exam findings include Jones Criteria (2 major or 1 major and 2 minor criteria for diagnosis). Major criteria: carditis, polyarthritis, chorea, subcutaneous nodules, erythema marginatum. Minor criteria: fever, arthralgia, elevated ESR/CRP, leukocytosis, ECG with prolonged PR interval. Must also have proof of past strep pharyngitis infection.
50
What is the treatment for Rheumatic Heart Disease?
Treatment includes penicillin for 10 days, aspirin for arthritis, and prednisone for severe carditis.
51
What is the pathogenesis of Atrial Fibrillation?
Disorganized electrical signals in the atria cause rapid and irregular heartbeats.
52
What are the symptoms and complications of Atrial Fibrillation?
Symptoms include palpitations, weakness, reduced exercise capacity, lightheadedness, and shortness of breath. Complications can include stroke and heart failure.
53
What are the risk factors for Atrial Fibrillation?
Risk factors include hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and excessive alcohol consumption.
54
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Atrial Fibrillation?
ECG findings include absence of P waves, irregularly irregular rhythm, and fibrillatory waves.
55
What is the treatment for Atrial Fibrillation?
Treatment includes rate control with beta blockers or calcium channel blockers, rhythm control with antiarrhythmic drugs, and anticoagulation to prevent stroke.
56
What is the pathogenesis of Atrial Flutter?
A single reentrant circuit causes the atria to beat very quickly, leading to a rapid but regular heart rate.
57
What are the symptoms and complications of Atrial Flutter?
Symptoms include palpitations, dizziness, and shortness of breath. Complications can include thromboembolism and heart failure.
58
What are the risk factors for Atrial Flutter?
Risk factors include heart disease, previous heart surgery, and chronic lung disease.
59
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Atrial Flutter?
ECG findings include sawtooth flutter waves, especially in leads II, III, and aVF.
60
What is the treatment for Atrial Flutter?
Treatment includes rate control, rhythm control, and anticoagulation. Catheter ablation may be considered.
61
What is the pathogenesis of Cardiac Arrest?
Abrupt loss of heart function due to electrical disturbances in the heart.
62
What are the symptoms and complications of Cardiac Arrest?
Symptoms include sudden collapse, no pulse, no breathing, and loss of consciousness. Complications include brain damage and death if not treated immediately.
63
What are the risk factors for Cardiac Arrest?
Risk factors include coronary artery disease, heart attack, and arrhythmias.
64
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Cardiac Arrest?
Physical exam shows unresponsiveness and absence of pulse. ECG can show ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia.
65
What is the treatment for Cardiac Arrest?
Immediate treatment includes CPR and defibrillation. Advanced treatments include medications and implantable devices.
66
What is the pathogenesis of Heart Block?
Delayed or blocked electrical signals from the atria to the ventricles.
67
What are the symptoms and complications of Heart Block?
Symptoms vary with the degree of block and can include fatigue, dizziness, and syncope. Complications include worsening heart block and sudden cardiac arrest.
68
What are the risk factors for Heart Block?
Risk factors include age, heart disease, and certain medications.
69
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Heart Block?
ECG findings vary: First-degree block shows prolonged PR interval; second-degree block (Mobitz I) shows progressive PR prolongation and dropped beats; second-degree block (Mobitz II) shows unexpected dropped beats without PR prolongation; third-degree block shows no association between P waves and QRS complexes.
70
What is the treatment for Heart Block?
Treatment includes monitoring for less severe blocks and pacemaker implantation for symptomatic or severe blocks.
71
What is the pathogenesis of Premature Atrial Contractions?
Early electrical impulses originating from the atria disrupt the normal heart rhythm.
72
What are the symptoms and complications of Premature Atrial Contractions?
Symptoms can include palpitations, skipped beats, and lightheadedness. Complications are rare but can include progression to more significant arrhythmias.
73
What are the risk factors for Premature Atrial Contractions?
Risk factors include stress, caffeine, alcohol, and underlying heart conditions.
74
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Premature Atrial Contractions?
ECG findings show premature P waves with a different shape from sinus P waves and a compensatory pause.
75
What is the treatment for Premature Atrial Contractions?
Treatment includes lifestyle modifications to reduce triggers and, in some cases, medications to manage symptoms.
76
What is the pathogenesis of Premature Ventricular Contractions?
Extra heartbeats originating in the ventricles disrupt the regular heart rhythm.
77
What are the symptoms and complications of Premature Ventricular Contractions?
Symptoms can include palpitations, a feeling of skipped beats, and occasional lightheadedness. Complications are rare but may include progression to more serious arrhythmias.
78
What are the risk factors for Premature Ventricular Contractions?
Risk factors include stress, caffeine, alcohol, and underlying heart conditions.
79
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Premature Ventricular Contractions?
ECG findings show early, wide QRS complexes without preceding P waves and a compensatory pause.
80
What is the treatment for Premature Ventricular Contractions?
Treatment includes lifestyle changes to reduce triggers, and in some cases, medications or procedures like catheter ablation.
81
What is the pathogenesis of Supraventricular Tachycardia?
Rapid heart rate originating above the ventricles, often due to reentrant circuits.
82
What are the symptoms and complications of Supraventricular Tachycardia?
Symptoms include palpitations, dizziness, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Complications can include heart failure and stroke.
83
What are the risk factors for Supraventricular Tachycardia?
Risk factors include excessive caffeine or alcohol, stress, smoking, and heart disease.
84
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Supraventricular Tachycardia?
ECG findings show narrow QRS complexes with rapid, regular rhythm, and often a P wave preceding each QRS complex.
85
What is the treatment for Supraventricular Tachycardia?
Treatment includes vagal maneuvers, medications like adenosine, beta blockers, or calcium channel blockers, and catheter ablation.
86
What is the pathogenesis of Ventricular Fibrillation?
Disorganized electrical activity in the ventricles causes the heart to quiver instead of pumping blood.
87
What are the symptoms and complications of Ventricular Fibrillation?
Symptoms include sudden collapse, loss of consciousness, and absence of pulse and breathing. Complications include death if not treated immediately.
88
What are the risk factors for Ventricular Fibrillation?
Risk factors include coronary artery disease, previous heart attack, and electrolyte imbalances.
89
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Ventricular Fibrillation?
Physical exam shows unresponsiveness, no pulse, and no breathing. ECG shows chaotic, irregular waveforms without identifiable QRS complexes.
90
What is the treatment for Ventricular Fibrillation?
Immediate treatment includes CPR and defibrillation. Advanced care involves medications like epinephrine and amiodarone.
91
What is the pathogenesis of Ventricular Tachycardia?
Rapid heart rate originating from the ventricles, which can be life-threatening if sustained.
92
What are the symptoms and complications of Ventricular Tachycardia?
Symptoms include palpitations, dizziness, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Complications include cardiac arrest and heart failure.
93
What are the risk factors for Ventricular Tachycardia?
Risk factors include previous heart attack, cardiomyopathy, and electrolyte imbalances.
94
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Ventricular Tachycardia?
ECG findings show wide QRS complexes with a regular, rapid rhythm, and possible fusion or capture beats.
95
What is the treatment for Ventricular Tachycardia?
Treatment includes antiarrhythmic medications, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs), and in some cases, catheter ablation.
96
What is the pathogenesis of Sinus Bradycardia?
Slow heart rate originating from the sinus node, often due to increased vagal tone or intrinsic sinoatrial node disease.
97
What are the symptoms and complications of Sinus Bradycardia?
Symptoms can include dizziness, fatigue, syncope, and exercise intolerance. Complications include reduced cardiac output and potential progression to more serious arrhythmias.
98
What are the risk factors for Sinus Bradycardia?
Risk factors include aging, underlying heart disease, electrolyte imbalances, and use of certain medications (e.g., beta blockers, digoxin).
99
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Sinus Bradycardia?
ECG findings show a heart rate less than 60 bpm with a regular rhythm and normal P waves preceding each QRS complex.
100
What is the treatment for Sinus Bradycardia?
Treatment includes addressing underlying causes, adjusting medications, and in symptomatic cases, pacemaker implantation.
101
What is the pathogenesis of Aortic Regurgitation?
Backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle during diastole due to incompetent aortic valve.
102
What are the symptoms and complications of Aortic Regurgitation?
Symptoms include exertional dyspnea, fatigue, palpitations, and angina. Complications can include heart failure and endocarditis.
103
What are the risk factors for Aortic Regurgitation?
Risk factors include rheumatic fever, infective endocarditis, Marfan syndrome, and aortic dissection.
104
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Aortic Regurgitation?
Physical exam findings include a high-pitched, blowing diastolic murmur at the left sternal border, and wide pulse pressure. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
105
What is the treatment for Aortic Regurgitation?
Treatment includes vasodilators, diuretics, and surgical valve replacement for severe cases.
106
What is the pathogenesis of Mitral Regurgitation?
Backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium during systole due to incompetent mitral valve.
107
What are the symptoms and complications of Mitral Regurgitation?
Symptoms include dyspnea, fatigue, palpitations, and orthopnea. Complications can include atrial fibrillation and heart failure.
108
What are the risk factors for Mitral Regurgitation?
Risk factors include mitral valve prolapse, rheumatic heart disease, and infective endocarditis.
109
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Mitral Regurgitation?
Physical exam findings include a holosystolic murmur at the apex, radiating to the axilla. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
110
What is the treatment for Mitral Regurgitation?
Treatment includes diuretics, beta blockers, and surgical repair or replacement for severe cases.
111
What is the pathogenesis of Mitral Valve Prolapse?
Bulging of one or both mitral valve leaflets into the left atrium during systole.
112
What are the symptoms and complications of Mitral Valve Prolapse?
Symptoms can include palpitations, chest pain, and dyspnea. Complications include mitral regurgitation and infective endocarditis.
113
What are the risk factors for Mitral Valve Prolapse?
Risk factors include connective tissue disorders like Marfan syndrome and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.
114
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Mitral Valve Prolapse?
Physical exam findings include a mid-systolic click followed by a late systolic murmur at the apex. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
115
What is the treatment for Mitral Valve Prolapse?
Treatment includes beta blockers for symptom relief and surgical repair for severe mitral regurgitation.
116
What is the pathogenesis of Pulmonic Regurgitation?
Backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle during diastole due to incompetent pulmonic valve.
117
What are the symptoms and complications of Pulmonic Regurgitation?
Symptoms include exertional dyspnea, fatigue, and palpitations. Complications can include right heart failure and arrhythmias.
118
What are the risk factors for Pulmonic Regurgitation?
Risk factors include pulmonary hypertension, congenital heart disease, and carcinoid syndrome.
119
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Pulmonic Regurgitation?
Physical exam findings include a diastolic decrescendo murmur at the left upper sternal border. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
120
What is the treatment for Pulmonic Regurgitation?
Treatment includes managing underlying conditions and surgical valve replacement for severe cases.
121
What is the pathogenesis of Tricuspid Regurgitation?
Backflow of blood from the right ventricle into the right atrium during systole due to incompetent tricuspid valve.
122
What are the symptoms and complications of Tricuspid Regurgitation?
Symptoms include fatigue, ascites, and peripheral edema. Complications can include right heart failure and atrial fibrillation.
123
What are the risk factors for Tricuspid Regurgitation?
Risk factors include pulmonary hypertension, infective endocarditis, and rheumatic heart disease.
124
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Tricuspid Regurgitation?
Physical exam findings include a holosystolic murmur at the left lower sternal border, increasing with inspiration. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
125
What is the treatment for Tricuspid Regurgitation?
Treatment includes diuretics, managing underlying conditions, and surgical repair or replacement for severe cases.
126
What is the pathogenesis of Aortic Stenosis?
Narrowing of the aortic valve opening, leading to obstruction of blood flow from the left ventricle to the aorta.
127
What are the symptoms and complications of Aortic Stenosis?
Symptoms include chest pain, syncope, and exertional dyspnea. Complications can include heart failure and sudden cardiac death.
128
What are the risk factors for Aortic Stenosis?
Risk factors include aging, congenital bicuspid aortic valve, and rheumatic fever.
129
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Aortic Stenosis?
Physical exam findings include a crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur at the right upper sternal border, radiating to the carotids. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
130
What is the treatment for Aortic Stenosis?
Treatment includes valve replacement for severe cases and medical management of symptoms.
131
What is the pathogenesis of Mitral Stenosis?
Narrowing of the mitral valve opening, leading to obstruction of blood flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle.
132
What are the symptoms and complications of Mitral Stenosis?
Symptoms include dyspnea, orthopnea, and hemoptysis. Complications can include atrial fibrillation and pulmonary hypertension.
133
What are the risk factors for Mitral Stenosis?
Risk factors include rheumatic fever and congenital heart defects.
134
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Mitral Stenosis?
Physical exam findings include a diastolic rumbling murmur with an opening snap at the apex. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
135
What is the treatment for Mitral Stenosis?
Treatment includes diuretics, beta blockers, and valve replacement for severe cases.
136
What is the pathogenesis of Pulmonic Stenosis?
Narrowing of the pulmonic valve opening, leading to obstruction of blood flow from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery.
137
What are the symptoms and complications of Pulmonic Stenosis?
Symptoms include exertional dyspnea, fatigue, and syncope. Complications can include right heart failure and arrhythmias.
138
What are the risk factors for Pulmonic Stenosis?
Risk factors include congenital heart defects and carcinoid syndrome.
139
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Pulmonic Stenosis?
Physical exam findings include a systolic ejection murmur at the left upper sternal border, radiating to the back. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
140
What is the treatment for Pulmonic Stenosis?
Treatment includes balloon valvuloplasty for moderate to severe cases and surgical valve replacement if necessary.
141
What is the pathogenesis of Tricuspid Stenosis?
Narrowing of the tricuspid valve opening, leading to obstruction of blood flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle.
142
What are the symptoms and complications of Tricuspid Stenosis?
Symptoms include fatigue, ascites, and peripheral edema. Complications can include right heart failure and atrial fibrillation.
143
What are the risk factors for Tricuspid Stenosis?
Risk factors include rheumatic fever and congenital heart defects.
144
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Tricuspid Stenosis?
Physical exam findings include a diastolic murmur at the left lower sternal border, increasing with inspiration. Echocardiography confirms diagnosis.
145
What is the treatment for Tricuspid Stenosis?
Treatment includes diuretics, managing underlying conditions, and surgical repair or replacement for severe cases.
146
What is the pathogenesis of Hypertension?
Chronic elevation of blood pressure due to increased systemic vascular resistance and/or increased cardiac output.
147
What are the symptoms and complications of Hypertension?
Symptoms can include headaches, dizziness, and vision problems. Complications include heart failure, stroke, and kidney disease.
148
What are the risk factors for Hypertension?
Risk factors include age, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, high salt intake, and family history.
149
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Hypertension?
Physical exam findings include elevated blood pressure readings. Labs may show elevated cholesterol and glucose levels.
150
What is the treatment for Hypertension?
Treatment includes lifestyle changes (diet, exercise), and medications such as ACE inhibitors, beta-blockers, and diuretics.
151
What is the pathogenesis of Hypotension?
Abnormally low blood pressure, leading to inadequate blood flow to organs.
152
What are the symptoms and complications of Hypotension?
Symptoms include dizziness, fainting, blurred vision, and fatigue. Complications can include shock and organ damage.
153
What are the risk factors for Hypotension?
Risk factors include dehydration, blood loss, heart conditions, and certain medications.
154
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Hypotension?
Physical exam findings include low blood pressure readings. Labs may show electrolyte imbalances and low hematocrit.
155
What is the treatment for Hypotension?
Treatment includes increasing fluid intake, addressing underlying causes, and medications to raise blood pressure.
156
What is the pathogenesis of Orthostatic Hypotension?
Drop in blood pressure upon standing, leading to reduced blood flow to the brain.
157
What are the symptoms and complications of Orthostatic Hypotension?
Symptoms include dizziness, lightheadedness, and fainting upon standing. Complications can include falls and injuries.
158
What are the risk factors for Orthostatic Hypotension?
Risk factors include age, dehydration, prolonged bed rest, and certain medications.
159
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Orthostatic Hypotension?
Physical exam findings include a significant drop in blood pressure upon standing. Tilt-table test may be used for diagnosis.
160
What is the treatment for Orthostatic Hypotension?
Treatment includes lifestyle changes (slowly rising from a seated or lying position), increased fluid and salt intake, and medications to manage blood pressure.
161
What is the pathogenesis of Hypertensive Crisis?
Severe elevation of blood pressure that can lead to organ damage.
162
What are the symptoms and complications of Hypertensive Crisis?
Symptoms include severe headache, chest pain, shortness of breath, and visual changes. Complications include stroke, heart attack, and kidney failure.
163
What are the risk factors for Hypertensive Crisis?
Risk factors include poorly controlled hypertension, kidney disease, and noncompliance with antihypertensive medications.
164
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Hypertensive Crisis?
Physical exam findings include extremely high blood pressure readings. Labs may show evidence of organ damage (elevated creatinine, proteinuria).
165
What is the treatment for Hypertensive Crisis?
Treatment includes immediate administration of intravenous antihypertensive medications and hospitalization for monitoring.
166
What is the pathogenesis of Aortic Aneurysm?
Localized dilation of the aorta due to weakening of the vessel wall.
167
What are the symptoms and complications of Aortic Aneurysm?
Symptoms can include a pulsatile abdominal mass, back pain, and rupture. Complications include rupture and hemorrhage.
168
What are the risk factors for Aortic Aneurysm?
Risk factors include hypertension, smoking, age, and atherosclerosis.
169
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Aortic Aneurysm?
Physical exam findings include a pulsatile mass and bruit. Imaging such as ultrasound or CT scan confirms diagnosis.
170
What is the treatment for Aortic Aneurysm?
Treatment includes monitoring for smaller aneurysms and surgical repair for larger or symptomatic aneurysms.
171
What is the pathogenesis of Chronic Venous Insufficiency?
Incompetent venous valves lead to venous hypertension and chronic pooling of blood in the veins.
172
What are the symptoms and complications of Chronic Venous Insufficiency?
Symptoms include leg swelling, varicose veins, skin changes, and ulcers. Complications can include venous ulcers and infections.
173
What are the risk factors for Chronic Venous Insufficiency?
Risk factors include prolonged standing, obesity, and pregnancy.
174
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Chronic Venous Insufficiency?
Physical exam findings include edema, hyperpigmentation, and ulceration. Duplex ultrasound confirms diagnosis.
175
What is the treatment for Chronic Venous Insufficiency?
Treatment includes compression therapy, leg elevation, and venous ablation procedures.
176
What is the pathogenesis of Gangrene?
Death of body tissue due to lack of blood flow or severe infection.
177
What are the symptoms and complications of Gangrene?
Symptoms include discoloration, pain, swelling, and foul-smelling discharge. Complications include sepsis and loss of limb.
178
What are the risk factors for Gangrene?
Risk factors include diabetes, peripheral artery disease, and severe trauma.
179
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Gangrene?
Physical exam findings include blackened, necrotic tissue. Imaging and cultures may be needed to determine extent and cause.
180
What is the treatment for Gangrene?
Treatment includes surgical debridement, antibiotics, and possibly amputation.
181
What is the pathogenesis of Hypovolemic Shock + Dehydration?
Severe fluid loss leads to decreased blood volume and inadequate tissue perfusion.
182
What are the symptoms and complications of Hypovolemic Shock + Dehydration?
Symptoms include rapid heartbeat, low blood pressure, and mental confusion. Complications can include organ failure and death.
183
What are the risk factors for Hypovolemic Shock + Dehydration?
Risk factors include severe dehydration, hemorrhage, and burns.
184
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Hypovolemic Shock + Dehydration?
Physical exam findings include low blood pressure, rapid pulse, and poor skin turgor. Lab results may show elevated hematocrit and electrolyte imbalances.
185
What is the treatment for Hypovolemic Shock + Dehydration?
Treatment includes fluid resuscitation, addressing the underlying cause, and medications to support blood pressure.
186
What is the pathogenesis of Phlebitis?
Inflammation of a vein, usually in the legs.
187
What are the symptoms and complications of Phlebitis?
Symptoms include pain, swelling, and redness along the vein. Complications can include deep vein thrombosis.
188
What are the risk factors for Phlebitis?
Risk factors include varicose veins, immobility, and IV catheter use.
189
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Phlebitis?
Physical exam findings include a tender, red, and warm vein. Ultrasound may be used to rule out DVT.
190
What is the treatment for Phlebitis?
Treatment includes anti-inflammatory medications, compression stockings, and warm compresses.
191
What is the pathogenesis of Primary + Secondary Raynaud Phenomenon?
Spasms of the small arteries, primarily in the fingers and toes, leading to color changes, pain, and numbness.
192
What are the symptoms and complications of Primary + Secondary Raynaud Phenomenon?
Symptoms include color changes (white, blue, red) in the extremities, pain, and numbness. Complications can include ulcers and gangrene.
193
What are the risk factors for Primary + Secondary Raynaud Phenomenon?
Risk factors include cold exposure, stress, and connective tissue diseases.
194
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Primary + Secondary Raynaud Phenomenon?
Physical exam findings include color changes in the extremities upon cold exposure or stress. Nailfold capillaroscopy and ANA testing may be used for diagnosis.
195
What is the treatment for Primary + Secondary Raynaud Phenomenon?
Treatment includes avoiding triggers, calcium channel blockers, and other vasodilators.
196
What is the pathogenesis of Stasis Dermatitis + Ulcers?
Chronic inflammation and breakdown of the skin due to poor venous return.
197
What are the symptoms and complications of Stasis Dermatitis + Ulcers?
Symptoms include itching, redness, and ulceration of the lower legs. Complications can include infection and chronic wounds.
198
What are the risk factors for Stasis Dermatitis + Ulcers?
Risk factors include chronic venous insufficiency and varicose veins.
199
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Stasis Dermatitis + Ulcers?
Physical exam findings include hyperpigmentation, lipodermatosclerosis, and venous ulcers. Duplex ultrasound may be used to assess venous function.
200
What is the treatment for Stasis Dermatitis + Ulcers?
Treatment includes compression therapy, topical steroids, and wound care.
201
What is the pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis?
Formation of plaques within the arterial walls, leading to narrowing and hardening of the arteries.
202
What are the symptoms and complications of Atherosclerosis?
Symptoms include chest pain, shortness of breath, and leg pain. Complications can include heart attack, stroke, and peripheral artery disease.
203
What are the risk factors for Atherosclerosis?
Risk factors include high cholesterol, hypertension, smoking, diabetes, and family history.
204
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Atherosclerosis?
Physical exam findings include bruits, diminished pulses, and high blood pressure. Lab tests may show elevated cholesterol levels.
205
What is the treatment for Atherosclerosis?
Treatment includes lifestyle changes, statins, antiplatelet agents, and surgical interventions like angioplasty.
206
What is the pathogenesis of Peripheral Artery Disease + Intermittent Claudication?
Atherosclerosis in peripheral arteries, leading to reduced blood flow and pain in the limbs.
207
What are the symptoms and complications of Peripheral Artery Disease + Intermittent Claudication?
Symptoms include claudication (pain with walking), ulcers, and gangrene. Complications include limb ischemia and amputation.
208
What are the risk factors for Peripheral Artery Disease + Intermittent Claudication?
Risk factors include smoking, diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia.
209
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Peripheral Artery Disease + Intermittent Claudication?
Physical exam findings include diminished pulses and arterial bruits. Ankle-brachial index (ABI) and Doppler ultrasound confirm diagnosis.
210
What is the treatment for Peripheral Artery Disease + Intermittent Claudication?
Treatment includes lifestyle changes, medications (antiplatelets, statins), and surgical interventions (angioplasty, bypass surgery).
211
What is the pathogenesis of Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger’s Dz)?
Inflammatory disease of small and medium-sized arteries and veins, often associated with smoking.
212
What are the symptoms and complications of Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger’s Dz)?
Symptoms include pain, ulcers, and gangrene in the extremities. Complications include limb loss.
213
What are the risk factors for Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger’s Dz)?
Risk factors include smoking and male gender.
214
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger’s Dz)?
Physical exam findings include diminished pulses and signs of ischemia. Angiography can show segmental occlusions.
215
What is the treatment for Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger’s Dz)?
Treatment includes smoking cessation and medications to improve blood flow. Severe cases may require amputation.
216
What is the pathogenesis of Embolism?
Blockage of a blood vessel by a clot or foreign material that has traveled from another part of the body.
217
What are the symptoms and complications of Embolism?
Symptoms vary depending on the location but can include pain, swelling, and loss of function. Complications include ischemia and organ damage.
218
What are the risk factors for Embolism?
Risk factors include atrial fibrillation, recent surgery, and long periods of immobility.
219
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Embolism?
Physical exam findings depend on the location of the embolism. Imaging such as ultrasound, CT, or MRI confirms diagnosis.
220
What is the treatment for Embolism?
Treatment includes anticoagulation therapy and, in some cases, surgical removal of the embolus.
221
What is the pathogenesis of Thrombosis?
Formation of a blood clot within a blood vessel, leading to obstruction of blood flow.
222
What are the symptoms and complications of Thrombosis?
Symptoms include pain, swelling, and redness in the affected area. Complications can include embolism and tissue damage.
223
What are the risk factors for Thrombosis?
Risk factors include immobility, surgery, cancer, and inherited clotting disorders.
224
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Thrombosis?
Physical exam findings include tenderness and swelling. Ultrasound and D-dimer test confirm diagnosis.
225
What is the treatment for Thrombosis?
Treatment includes anticoagulation therapy and compression stockings.
226
What is the pathogenesis of Thrombophlebitis?
Inflammation of a vein with associated thrombosis.
227
What are the symptoms and complications of Thrombophlebitis?
Symptoms include pain, swelling, and redness along the vein. Complications can include deep vein thrombosis.
228
What are the risk factors for Thrombophlebitis?
Risk factors include varicose veins, immobility, and IV catheter use.
229
What are the key physical exam findings and lab results for Thrombophlebitis?
Physical exam findings include a tender, red, and warm vein. Ultrasound may be used to rule out DVT.
230
What is the treatment for Thrombophlebitis?
Treatment includes anti-inflammatory medications, compression stockings, and warm compresses.
