caregiver-infant interactions in humans

Question 1

define attachment

Answer 1

infants and caregivers develop deep and lasting emotional bonds - both parties seek closeness and security

Question 2

what are the 2 types of caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 2

reciprocity
interactional synchrony

Question 3

define reciprocity

Answer 3

mutual turn-taking form of interaction - respond to each other’s signals and cues e.g. baby smiling back after mother smiles
this develops at a very early age

Question 4

study supporting reciprocity

Answer 4

Meltzoff & Moore (1977)
experimenter displayed facial gestures (e.g. tongue out, shock face) to 12-21 day old infants
recordings of infant’s responses rated by people blindly
found that infant responses matched the experimenter’s facial expressions
suggest the ability to observe and reciprocate through imitation is present from an early age

Question 5

define interactional synchrony

Answer 5

simultaneous interaction between infant and caregiver - matched and coordinated behaviour and match emotional state

Question 6

evidence for interactional synchrony

Answer 6

Condon & Sander (1974)
analysed recorded interactions between adults and newborns focusing on babies movements in response to adult speech
found evidence of interactional synchrony via coordination of babies movements and the rhythmic patterns of adult speech
suggests humans have an innate ability for social interaction from birth

Question 7

other types of caregiver-infant interactions in humans

Answer 7

imitation: infant copies caregiver’s expression
sensitive responsiveness: caregiver interprets meaning of infant’s communication and responds appropriately
child-directed speech: caregiver talks in a ‘sing-song’ tone - slow and high-pitched to keep infant’s attention
body contact: skin-to-skin contact important for bonding e.g. breastfeeding

Question 8

explain Brazelton et al (1975) experiment

Answer 8

aim: to identify trends in mother-baby interactional synchrony
method: taped 12 mother-baby pairs’ play, data was examined to reveal 3 phases of play:
1. attention and build-up
2. recovery
3. turning away
these phases were repeated at regular intervals
conclusion: three phases of play demonstrate the early signs of organised behaviour

Question 9

Isabella and Belsky (1991) experiment

Answer 9

hypothesis: caregiver-baby pairs that developed secure attachment relationships would display more synchronous behaviour than babies with insecure attachments
method: babies ages 3 and 9 months were observed
results: the secure group interacted in a well-timed, reciprocal and mutually rewarding manner
the insecure group were characterised by interactions that were minimally involved, unresponsive and intrusive
avoidant pairs displayed maternal intrusiveness and overstimulation
resistant pairs were poorly coordinated, under-involved and inconsistent
conclusion: this predicted attachment quality

Question 10

evaluations of caregiver-infant interactions

Answer 10

+ studies use multiple observers that are blind to the true aims of the experiment to provide inter-rater reliability
+ studies use complex cameras to capture all details indicating high internal validity
- infants cannot directly communicate so findings depend on inferences based on observed behaviour - could make wrong assumptions
- social sensitivity is a concern as childrearing techniques may lead to criticism of caregivers

Question 11

method of Schaffer and Emerson (1964) experiment

Answer 11

studied 60 babies from Glasgow at monthly intervals for 18 months using a longitudinal method
children were studied in their own homes and visited monthly for a year
interactions with their carers were analysed to establish if and when infants started to display separation anxiety

Question 12

results of Schaffer and Emerson (1964) experiment

Answer 12

separation anxiety occurred in most babies by 25-32 weeks and stranger distress occurs later
18-month follow up:
attachments were most likely to form with carers who were sensitive to the baby’s signals rather than the person spent the most time with

Question 13

conclusion made from Schaffer and Emerson’s study

Answer 13

results suggest that development occurs in the stages outlined by Schaffer, perhaps being a biologically influenced process
as multiple attachments develop quickly, they are important, not just the primary attachment to the mother, as argued by researchers such as Bowlby
also the quality of caregiver-infant interaction directly impacts the strength of attachment for infants and their mothers

Question 14

evaluations for Schaffer and Emerson’s study

Answer 14

• sample may not be generalisable as it only included a group of working-class mothers in the 60s in Glasgow - this culture is not representative of much of the UK or the rest of the world
• may lack temporal validity as childrearing practices are likely to have changed significantly in the past 50years
  + high level of mundane realism as families were observed in their homes so the experience was normal for the infants - suggests the behaviour recorded was valid

Question 15

what are the four distinct stages of developmental progress that characterise infants’ attachments?

Answer 15

asocial stage (0-6 weeks)
indiscriminate attachments (6 weeks - 6 months)
specific attachment (7months+)
multiple attachments (10-11months+)

Question 16

asocial stage

Answer 16

• 0-6 weeks
• Infant is forming bonds with and recognizes carers
• Behaviour is similar towards human and non-human objects
• Babies are happier in the presence of other familiar human

Question 17

indiscriminate attachment

Answer 17

• 6weeks-6months
• displaying observable social behaviours
• Preference for people rather than inanimate objects
• Babies accept cuddles and comfort from any adult, and do not usually show separation or stranger anxiety

Question 18

specific attachments

Answer 18

• Around 7months
• Majority of babies start to show anxiety towards strangers or when they are separated from one particular adult (65% biological mother)
• Adult is primary attachment figure but it is not necessarily the person they spend the most time with, but the one who offers the most interaction.

Question 19

multiple attachments

Answer 19

• Secondary attachment to people babies spend a lot of time with
• Normally occurs before one year - 10/11months+

Question 20

• evaluations of infant testing: problems with testing infant behaviour

Answer 20

• there are difficulties in reliably testing infant behaviour for example, constant motions of the mouth that babies often do are tested frequently like yawning and smiling making it difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours

Question 21

how could you overcome the problems surrounding testing infant behaviour?

Answer 21

Meltzoff and Moore measured infant responses by filming infants and asking an observer to judge the behaviours solely from the video - the observer had no idea what behaviour was being imitated
increased the internal validity of the data

Question 22

• evaluations of infant testing: failure to replicate

Answer 22

• a study by Koepke et al (1983) failed to replicate Meltzoff and Moores findings - they counterargued that the research failed because it wasn’t controlled carefully
• Marian et al (1996) replicated Murray and Trevarthen’s study and found that infants couldn’t distinguish live from videotaped interactions with mothers suggesting that the infants are responding to the adult itself however it acknowledged that the problem lied with the procedure rather than the ability of infants to imitate their caregivers

Question 23

what were Schaffer’s results for primary attachment figures?

Answer 23

65% mother only
30% both parents
3% father only

at 18 months, 75% formed attachment to father and showed separation anxiety suggesting fathers play an important role in infant’s lives

Question 24

what is the role of the father?

Answer 24

fathers are seen to engage babies in ‘active play’ activities more consistently than mothers
fathers interactions emphasise stimulation and so it is thought their role is to encourage risk-taking behaviours, compared to the more comforting style of mothers

Question 25

what is the role of the father as a primary caregiver in modern western society?

Answer 25

mothers are more likely to take part in the workplace
there is evidence to suggest that if men take on role of primary caregivers, their interactional style changes to be more like mothers, increasing their capacity for sensitive responsiveness

Question 26

research evidence in the role of the father

Answer 26

Field (1978) observed primary caretaker mothers, primary caretaker fathers and secondary caretaker fathers interacting with their 4-month old infants
found fathers in general focused more on game playing and less on holding
the primary caretaker fathers showed more sensitively responsive behaviour like mothers e.g. used more smiling and child-directed speech than secondary caretaker fathers

Question 27

evaluations for the role of the father research

Answer 27

• socially sensitive research - argued that the role of the mother cannot be replaced by the father may lead to father-led single families and families with 2 fathers feeling they cannot fully provide for the needs of their child
  + research suggests that father’s role is important socially so may give fathers confidence to take a more active role in caregiving
  + economic implications - could lead to equal paternity and maternity leave and reduce the gender pay gap
• economic implications - reduce economic activity and place pressure on businesses due to less males in the workforce