CE 107 Flashcards
(94 cards)
1
Q
What is the equatorial radius of the Earth?
A
6370 km
2
Q
What is the polar radius of the Earth?
A
6348 km
3
Q
What is the surface area of the Earth?
A
510 x 10^6 km² (29% land or 35% including shallow sea areas)
4
Q
What is the average height of land above sea level?
A
0.86 km
5
Q
What is the mean depth of the ocean floor?
A
3.8 km
6
Q
What is the height of the highest peak on Earth?
A
8.9 km
7
Q
What is the greatest known depth in the ocean?
A
11.04 km
8
Q
What are the four major spheres of the Earth?
A
- Geosphere
- Hydrosphere
- Atmosphere
- Biosphere
9
Q
What is the crust of the Earth composed of?
A
Broken into many pieces called plates
10
Q
What is the mantle’s consistency?
A
Flows with the consistency of asphalt (1800 miles thick)
11
Q
What does the outer core consist of?
A
Iron and nickel in liquid state (1400 miles thick)
12
Q
What is the inner core made of?
A
Iron and nickel in solid state (800 miles thick)
13
Q
What causes earthquakes?
A
Sharp movements along fractures (faults) which relieve stress in the crustal rocks
14
Q
What is a tsunami?
A
A wave caused by a major earthquake at sea rapidly changing the elevation of the ocean floor
15
Q
What is the epicenter of an earthquake?
A
The point on the Earth’s surface vertically above the focus of an earthquake
16
Q
What is the focus of an earthquake?
A
The point inside the Earth where the earthquake started
17
Q
What scale measures earthquake intensity?
A
Mercalli Scale
18
Q
What scale measures earthquake magnitude?
A
Richter Scale
19
Q
What are the two types of seismic waves?
A
- Body waves
- Surface waves
20
Q
What are the types of body waves?
A
- P-waves (fastest)
- S-waves (slower)
21
Q
Who first outlined the possible movement of continents?
A
Alfred Wegener in 1912
22
Q
What name did Alfred Wegener give to the hypothetical supercontinent?
A
Pangaea
23
Q
What are oceanic ridges?
A
Submerged mountain ranges found in all the oceans
24
Q
What is palaeomagnetism?
A
The study of the magnetic properties of rocks, showing patterns of stripes parallel to median rifts
25
What are the three types of plate tectonic movement?
* Divergent
* Convergent
* Transform
26
What is a mineral?
Naturally occurring inorganic substances with definite chemical composition and crystalline structure
27
What are the physical properties of minerals?
* Color & Streak
* Luster
* Hardness
* Cleavage & Fracture
* Specific Gravity
28
What is luster in minerals?
How a mineral reflects light (metallic, vitreous, silky, etc.)
29
How is hardness measured in minerals?
On Mohs’ Scale (1 = Talc to 10 = Diamond)
30
What is cleavage in minerals?
How minerals break along smooth planes
31
What is fracture in minerals?
How minerals break along irregular surfaces
32
What are the main crystal systems?
* Cubic (Isometric)
* Tetragonal
* Hexagonal
* Orthorhombic
* Monoclinic
* Triclinic
33
What are silicate minerals?
The most common group of minerals, constituting about 90% of Earth’s crust
34
What are isolated tetrahedra in silicate minerals?
Nesosilicates where each SiO₄ unit stands alone (e.g., Olivine)
35
What are single chains in silicate minerals?
Inosilicates where tetrahedra share two corners to form a continuous chain (e.g., Pyroxenes)
36
What are double chains in silicate minerals?
Inosilicates where tetrahedra share corners to form two parallel chains (e.g., Amphiboles)
37
What are sheets in silicate minerals?
Phyllosilicates where tetrahedra share three corners, creating flat, layered sheets (e.g., Micas)
38
What are three-dimensional frameworks in silicate minerals?
Tectosilicates where every tetrahedron shares all four corners, forming a strong 3D network (e.g., Feldspars and Quartz)
39
What are accessory minerals?
Minerals that can significantly influence rock properties (e.g., color, magnetism, chemistry)
40
What are secondary minerals?
Minerals that form after the rock initially forms by chemical alteration or weathering of primary minerals
41
What are clay minerals?
Fine-grained silicates found in soils
42
What is magma primarily composed of?
Silicon and Oxygen, along with metals like potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and iron
43
What happens when magma cools quickly?
It solidifies as a rock-glass, without crystals
44
What is an igneous rock?
Rocks formed from the cooling and solidification of molten material, either magma or lava
45
What are extrusive igneous rocks?
Rocks formed when lava cools and crystallizes on the Earth's surface
46
What are intrusive igneous rocks?
Rocks that solidify underground, also known as plutonic rocks
47
What are felsic rocks?
Igneous rocks with >65% silica content, high in quartz and feldspar
48
What are basic (mafic) rocks?
Igneous rocks with 45-55% silica content, rich in pyroxene and amphibole
49
What are ultrabasic (ultramafic) rocks?
Igneous rocks with <45% silica content, mostly olivine and pyroxene
50
What is lithification?
The process through which sedimentary rocks are formed
51
What are clasts in sedimentary rocks?
Fragments of pre-existing rocks and minerals that have been weathered and transported
52
What is the matrix in clastic sedimentary rocks?
The finer-grained material that fills the spaces between larger clasts
53
What is cement in sedimentary rocks?
Minerals that precipitate from groundwater and bind the clasts together
54
What are chemical sedimentary rocks?
Rocks that form when minerals precipitate from a solution due to evaporation or chemical processes
55
What are organic sedimentary rocks?
Rocks formed primarily from the accumulation and preservation of organic material
56
What is stratification?
The horizontal layering of rocks that occurs when sediment settles
57
What is a metamorphic rock?
A rock that has changed from its original form due to heat, pressure, or chemical processes
58
What is foliation in metamorphic rocks?
Layered appearance from aligned minerals due to directed pressure
59
What are the types of metamorphic textures?
* Foliated Rock
* Non-Foliated Rocks
60
What is contact metamorphism?
Metamorphism caused by heat from magma intrusion
61
What is regional metamorphism?
Metamorphism that occurs over large areas due to high temperature and pressure
62
What are geological structures?
Folds, faults, and joints resulting from tectonic forces deforming the Earth's crust
63
What is an anticline?
A convex upward fold where limbs dip away from each other
64
What is a syncline?
A concave upward fold where limbs dip toward each other
65
What is a normal fault?
A fault caused by tension forces that move the hanging wall downward
66
What is a reverse fault?
A fault caused by compression forces that push the hanging wall upward
67
What are joints in geology?
Fractures in rocks without movement
68
What are some mining challenges related to geological structures?
* Folding distorts deposits
* Faulting breaks or shifts mineral seams
69
What is denudation?
Continuous reduction and modification of land by weathering and erosion
70
What are valuable minerals deposited by fluids?
Minerals that are economically beneficial and can be extracted for use.
## Footnote
Examples include gold, silver, and copper.
71
What geological structures can folding create that concentrate ores?
Anticlines, synclines, and saddle reefs.
## Footnote
These structures trap minerals in specific areas.
72
What natural features do faults and folds create for hydrocarbons?
Natural storage spaces for oil and gas reservoirs.
## Footnote
These spaces are essential for hydrocarbon accumulation.
73
How can faulting and folding affect mineral seams?
They can break, shift, or duplicate mineral seams.
74
What challenge does folding present in mining?
It distorts deposits, making extraction harder.
75
How can joints and faults impact mines?
They can cause flooding in mines.
76
What is denudation?
Continuous reduction and modification of land by weathering and erosion.
77
What is chemical weathering?
Transformation of minerals through reactions like oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation.
## Footnote
Agents include water, oxygen, and acids.
78
What are the types of chemical weathering?
* Solution
* Oxidation
* Reduction
* Hydration
* Hydrolysis
* Leaching
* Cation Exchange
79
What defines mechanical weathering?
Breakdown of rocks without changing composition.
80
What are the processes involved in mechanical weathering?
* Unloading
* Loading
* Thermal Expansion
* Wetting & Drying
* Crystallization
* Pneumatic Loading
* Frost Action
* Insolation
81
What is biological weathering?
Weathering caused by living organisms contributing to rock breakdown.
82
What are physical agents of biological weathering?
* Root Growth
* Burrowing
* Tree Fall
83
What are chemical agents of biological weathering?
* Organic Acids
* Decay of Organic Matter
* Microbial Activity
84
What is soil?
Topmost earth layer composed of minerals and organic material.
85
What is a soil profile?
Vertical cross-section showing distinct horizons.
86
What is erosion?
Wearing away of land by water, wind, ice, and gravity.
87
What is deposition?
Settling of sediments transported by erosion.
88
What are the three stages of river work?
* Erosion
* Transportation
* Deposition
89
What are the stages of work of the sea?
* Erosion
* Transportation
* Deposition
90
What does wind do in terms of erosion and deposition?
* Abrasion
* Deposition (formation of sand dunes)
91
How do glaciers affect landscapes?
They erode landscapes by removing soil and rocks.
92
What is mass transport (mass wasting)?
Movement of soil, rock, and debris due to gravity.
93
What is a karst landscape?
Formed from dissolving limestone by slightly acidic water.
94
What are features of a karst landscape?
* Caves
* Underground rivers
* Sinkholes
* Steep cliffs
