Cells Flashcards
1
Q
Algae and Fungi proktaryoted or eukaryotic
A
They can be both
2
Q
Golgi vesicles
A
stores lipids and proteins made by the golgi and transports them out of the cell
3
Q
Lysosome
A
Contains lysozymes that digest invading cells and or break down worn out components of the cell
4
Q
Ribosomes
A
Site of protein synthesis
5
Q
RER
A
Folds and processes proteins that have been made at their ribosomes
6
Q
SER
A
Synthesises and processes lipids
7
Q
cell wall
A
supports cell and prevents them changing shape
8
Q
vacuole
A
maintains pressure inside the cell and keeps the call rigid stops plants witling. isolates unwanted chemicals inside the cell
9
Q
Golgi apparatus
A
processes and packages new lipids and proteins and makes lysosomes
10
Q
chloroplasts
A
site of photosynthesis happens in the stroma or the grana
11
Q
mitochondrion
A
site of aerobic respiration where ATP is produced
12
Q
Nucleus
A
contains DNA
13
Q
nucleus pores
A
allow subtances to move between nucleus and cytoplasm
14
Q
nucleolus
A
makes ribosomes
15
Q
cell membrane
A
regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell. has receptor molecules that allow it to respond to hormones
16
Q
What are the cell walls of fungi made from
A
Chitin
17
Q
What makes up the cell walls of plants
A
Cellulose
18
Q
What makes up the cell walls of algae
A
Cellulose
19
Q
What 3 things are in mitocondria
A
Outer membrane
Cristae (inner membrane)
Matrix
20
Q
Are viruses living or non living
A
Non living
21
Q
Why are viruses non living
A
They have no cell membrane or mitochondria
22
Q
How do viruses reproduce
A
They need a host cell to insert their genetic material into to reproduce
23
Q
what does a slime capsule do
A
Provides protection for the cell
24
Q
plasmids
A
contain genes for things like antibiotic resistance
25
flagellum
for movement
26
capsid
provides protection
27
attachment proteins
bind to receptors of host cells
28
resolution
the ability to see the difference between to different points
29
magnification
measure of how many times bigger an imagine is than the actual object
30
what’s an optical microscope
light microscope
31
what is a TEM
transmission electron microscope
32
what is a SEM
scanning electron microscope
33
what’s an artefact
what is left over from the preparation process (microscopes)
A foreign object that isn’t the sample
34
how do TEMs work
electrons are transmitted through the specimen from a beam of electrons which is focused by electromagnets
35
how are the images different colours on TEMS
denser parts absorb electrons which makes them look darker
36
TEMs specimens and how they appear
thin specimens, they look 2D but had high resolution
37
how do SEMs work
beam of electrons is scanned across the specimen which is gathered at the cathode ray tube to form an image
38
SEMs specimens
thick specimens but have lower resolution and 3D images
39
what do SEMs and TEMs both have in common
used under a vacuum
dead samples
no colour
artefacts
40
three steps of cell fractionation
Homogenisation
Filtration
Centrifugation
41
Homogenisation steps
cells are broken up by a homogeniser which breaks open membranes
42
homogenisation conditions
Ice cold
pH buffers
isotonic solution
43
step two of cell fractionation
filtration, the harmoganate is filtered to remove full cells or debris
44
step three of cell fractionation
centrifugation- ultracentrifuge spins at a high speed and denser organelles form a pellet at the bottom and the rest in a supernatent
45
most the least dense organelles
nucleus
mitocondria
lysosomes
ER
ribosomes
46
what’s the machines called in cell fractionation
ultracentrifuge
47
what is muerin
glycoprotein
48
order of mitosis stages
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
49
Prophase
Chromosomes condense becoming shorter and thicker so they are visible
nuclear membrane and nucleolus break down
centrioles move to opposite poles
50
metaphase
chromosomes line up down the equator
spindle fibres attach to centromeres
51
anaphase
chromatic are pulled apart by spindle fibres at the centromere to opposite poles
52
telophase
chromosomes become indistinct
nuclear membrane reforms
spindle fibres are gone
nuclear envelope and nucleolus reform
53
cytokinesis
cytoplasm and organelles are equally split
genetically identical daughter cells
54
prokaryote
no membrane bound organelles
55
why are viruses dead and are acellular
not made of cells, can’t respire
56
size of a virus
0.1 micro meters
57
G1 interphase
organelles duplicate
58
S interphase
dna starts to replicate
59
G2 interphase
dna replication is finished
Cell continues to grow
60
What organelle has stacked membranes in parallel and contains DNA
Chloroplast
61
What organelle is made from a polysaccharide
The cell wall
62
What organelle is not surrounded by two membranes
Golgi apparatus
63
Why might there be more mitochondria in cells
Synthesis of protein
Movement
Active transport
64
What biological molecule is in the cell membrane
Phospholipds
65
What biological molecule is in a prokaryotes cell wall
Murein
66
Why might the nucleus not be in view on a microscope
Could be in a different part of the cell
67
How to get from centimeters to micrometers
Times by 10 to the power of eight
68
What’s the importance of mitosis
It increases the number of cells in the body and can repair tissues
69
Why might you use a large number of cells when investigating mitosis
Some cells won’t be going under mitosis
70
What is binary fusion
Cell division in prokaryotic cells
71
Binary fusion steps
Circular dna and plasmid replicate
Cell lengthens and dna is pulled to opposite poles
new membrane grows between dna and pinches in
A new cell wall forms between the dna splitting them so there are two cells
72
Ribosomes sizes in prokaryotes
70s
73
Ribosomes sizes in a eukaryote
80s
74
Why can’t organelles be identified using optical microscopes
Low resolution and wavelength of light is too long
75
What organelles are in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Cell surface membrane
DNA
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
76
What points in the cell cycle does the cell have double the mass
G2 interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
77
What is chitin (element wise)
Nitrogenous
78
What is simple diffusion
Net movement of particles from a higher to a lower concerntration
Passive no it requires no energy
79
What is facilitated diffusion
Larger molecules diffuse slowly through the phospholipid bilayer using either carrier or channel proteins
80
Examples of simple diffusion
Oxygen and carbon dioxide since they are soluble in lipids and can dissolve in a hydrophobic bilayer of phospholipids
81
Factors that affect simple diffusion
Temperature (stirring in a practical)
Surface area
Steeper concentration
Length of diffusion distance
82
Factors that affect facilitated diffusion
Everything in simple
Number of channel and carrier proteins
83
Channel proteins
Facilitate ions through to the cell
It has a direct path
84
Carrier proteins
Facilitate amino acids glucose or other large molecules into the cell
It changes shape
85
Carrier proteins process of facilitated diffusion
Large molecule attaches to the binding site
Carrier Protein changes shape
Releases molecule into the intra cellular space
86
Carrier proteins process of facilitated diffusion
Large molecule attaches to the binding site
Carrier Protein changes shape
Releases molecule into the intra cellular space
87
Osmosis
Net movement of water molecules by aquaporins from higher water potential to a lower water potential across a semi permeable membrane until equilibrium is reached
88
Water potential
The likelihood of water molecules diffusing in or out of a solution
89
What are the units for water potential
Kilopascals
90
Isotonic
Same water potential as inside the cell
91
Hypertonic
Lower water potential than the cell so water moves out
Animal cells shrivel
Plant cells go flaccid
92
Hypotonic
Higher water potential than the cell so water moves in
Animal cells burst
Plant turgid
93
Factors that affect osmosis
Temp
Surface area
Aquaporins number
Water potential gradient
94
How can cells specialise to have a larger surface area
Folding membranes like the microvilli
95
What makes up ribose
Protein and RNA
96
What happens to cancer cells when they die
Can burst open
97
What type of ions does co transport use
Sodium ions
Na+
98
What two methods does co transport use
Active transport and facilitated diffusion
99
Co transport definition
Two substances move at the same time through the same carrier protein
100
4 steps of co transport in the ileum epithelial cell summaries
Sodium potassium pump
Low concentration
Sodium and glucose in cell
Glucose out of cell to blood
101
Step one of co transport
Sodium ions move from cell to blood by active transport
Potassium diffuses into the cell
(Sodium potassium pump)
102
Step two of co transport
Low concentration of sodium ions in the cell
Create a concentration gradient
103
Step three of co transport
Sodium ions and Glucose facilitated diffuse into the cell
Happens at the same time with the carrier protein
104
Step four of co transport
Glucose goes from the cell into the blood by facilitated diffusion through the glut2 protein
105
What protein does glucose use in co transport to diffuse out the cell
Glu T2 membrane protein
106
pathogen
microorganism that can cause disease
bacteria, virus, protist or fungi
107
how are pathogens detected
antigens present on the surface of the pathogen are detected
108
antigens
antigens are proteins on the surface of the cell that generates an immune response when detected by the body
109
what are the two types of the body’s defence mechanisms
physical and chemical barriers
110
physical barriers
skin
nose hair
mucus- cilia in trachea
111
chemical barrier
lysozymes in tears
stomach acid
112
specific immune response
recognised a specific pathogen and coordinated a response
113
non specific immune response
happens regardless to what pathogen has entered
etc phagocytosis
114
phagocytosis definition
process of where a pathogen is engulfed and digested by a phagocyte
115
phagocytosis steps
1- foreign antigens recognised
2- pathogen is engulfed
3- pathogen in phagosome
4- phagosome fuses with lysosome -> phagolysosome
5- lysozymes hydrolyses pathogen
6- now an antigen presenting cell
116
what do antibodies do
bind to complimentary antigens on pathogens and clump them together for phagocyte to engulf
117
where are t cells from
stem cells and bone marrow
118
how are t cells activated
from antigen presenting cells
119
what are the two types of t cells
t-helper cells
cytotoxic cells
120
t-helper cells function
release chemical signals to active phagocytes and cytotoxic cells
121
how and when are memory cells made
from antibodies during tcells and bcells
122
where are bcells made
bone marrow
123
what lymphocytes live in the blood for a long time
b cells
124
how are b cells activated
when an antigen binds to a b cell and a t-helper cells when they release a chemical
125
what does a b cell do when activated
divide into plasma cells by clonal selection
126
what do plasma cells do
rapidly produce antibodies
127
what are plasma cells identical too
the b cell it came from
128
4 steps immune response summary
phagocytosis
phagocytes active t cells
clonal selection
plasma cells make more antibodies
129
what type of biological molecule are antigens
protein
130
How does a thicker alveoli affect diffusion of oxygen
It diffuses in slower because there is a longer diffusion distance
131
How does ventilation maintain a difference in oxygen concentration
Air containing more oxygen enters and air with a lower oxygen concentration leaves
132
Why do competitive inhibitors not work for all types of enzymes
Because they are not a similar shape to the complimentary substrate that fits into their active site
133
How can a pathogen cause disease
Produce toxins
Damage cells
134
4 types of pathogen
Fungi
Protists
Virus
Bacteria
135
what does HIV have that other virus’s don’t
a matrix
reverse transcriptase
136
what genetic material does a HIV have
RNA
137
what are symptoms of HIV
flu symptoms
cold sores
138
how does HIV infect cells
1- attaches to t cells using attachment proteins
2- genetic material injected into cell
3- RNA is converted to DNA using reverse transcriptase
4- viral dna moves to nucleus and is inserted into cells
5- cell makes viral proteins
6- new virus leaves cell
139
what does reverse transcriptase do
turn RNA into DNA
140
what happens when HIV leaves the cell
it takes away from the cell membrane for it lipid envelope
141
how does HIV fuse with the t cell
both made out of lipids
lipid envelope and phospholipid bilayer
142
what is HIV an example of
a virus
143
how does HIV affect people- long term
infects and destroys t cells
no b cells can be activated
no more antibodies
pathogens can’t be killed (secondary infection)
144
What does HIV attack
CD4
T helper cells
145
How does HIV hide in the body
Change their antigen shape so no secondary response happens
When they infect a cell antigens are not on the surface
146
Cellular responses
Phagocytosis
T cells
147
Humeral responses
Clonal selection and plasma cells
148
What are the four types of T cells
T helper
Cytotoxic
Suppressor
Memory
149
Cytotoxic cells
Target infected human cells by releasing performin which makes a hole in the membrane then they inject granzymes which enter the cell and digests the contents
150
Supresor cells
Prevents an ove active immune system by slowing down cytotoxic and helper cells
151
What chemical do cytotoxic cells release
Perforin
152
What enzyme do cytotoxic cells use
Granzymes
153
The cellular response to activate t cells
1- pathogen destroyed by phagocytosis
2- phagocyte displays the antigen on its membrane
3- t-helper cell binds to antigen using its receptor
4- T helper cell divides
5- makes memory cells activates cytotoxic cells etc
154
Why might b cells have more RER
For more protein synthesis to produce more antibodies
155
Are antibodies insoluble or soluble in plasma
Thy are soluble in plasma
156
Humoral response to activate b cells
1- antigen from pathogens are taken up by b cell
2- displays the antigen on its surface
3- activated T helper cell attaches to antigen and activates b cell
4- activated b cells clone by mitosis to become plasma or memory cells
5- plasma cells secrete complimentary antibody to pathogens antigen for agglutination
6- b memory cells stay in the blood for a long time
157
What type of structure are antibodies
Quaternary
158
What 4 things do antibodies contain
2 light chains
2 heavy chains
159
Variable region of an antibodies
Where the antigen binds to it
The primary structure- sequence of amino acids
160
Constant region
Where the plasma cell binds
161
What do antibodies make when they bind to antigens
Antigen antibody complex
162
Agglutination
Assist the phagocytes by trapping an marking the pathogen
163
Primary infection response
The foreign antigens first time in the body
Phagocytosis
Humeral response
Cellular response
164
Secondary response
Memory cells i the blood fight off the pathogen
They do this quicker than primary and less or no symptoms will show
165
Immunity
Capacity to recognise the intrusion of foreign antigens
166
Passive immunity
Antibodies are given to the body
167
Active immunity
Antibodies are made by the body
168
Passive artificial immunity example
A vaccine including the antibodies for a specific antigen
169
Passover natural immunity example
Breast milk which contains the antibodies for diseases
170
Active artificial immunity example
Vaccine of the pathogen
171
Active natural immunity example
Having the pathogen in the body
172
Types of vaccine
Attenuated
Dead
Purified
173
Attenuated vaccine
Inactive pathogen
174
Purified vaccine
Only has the pathogens antigens
175
Antigenic variability
Pathogen can mutate frequently then the immune system wont have the memory cells for it
176
What does the cellular response activate
T cells
177
What does the humedal response activate
B cells
178
why do we need a cell membrane
to keep outside and inside conditions different
179
permeable
how much is allowed to pass in
180
how does a colorimeter work
fired a light source and measures how much is absorbed
181
monoclonal antibodies
collection of antibodies that are complimentary to one antigen
182
how are monoclonal antibodies made
1- animal is injected with pathogen
2- antibodies are made by animal
3- antibodies are extracted
4- detergent is used to break down membranes
5- tumour and antibodies are merged
6- hybridoma is formed
183
why are antibodies humanised
they don’t trigger an immune response
184
what are monoclonal antibodies used for
medical diagnosis
targeting drugs
ELISA tests
185
Pregnancy testing steps
1-Urine applied to reaction zone
2-Complimentary antibodies to HCG have blue dye
3-Antigen antibody complex at the results window with Immoblised antibodies
4- antibodies bind to mobile antibodies from reaction some releasing blue dye
186
Treating cancers with monoclonal antibodies
Cancer cells have antigens called tumor markers
Complimentary monoclonal antibodies are made to the tumour markers
Anti cancer cells bind to antibodies
Drugs only accumulate where cancer cells are
187
HCG
Hormone release when your pregnant
188
Elisa test steps
1- Surface coated with antibodies
2- patients sample added
3- complimentary antigens bind to antibodies
4- sample is washes away to remove unbinded antigens
5- second antibodies bind to antigen antibody complex’s
6-substrate is added
7- enzyme causes substrate to change colour
189
Elisa test results
Intensity of the colour change relates to the concentration of the antigens
190
Organelle found in both a chloroplast and a prokaryotic cell
70s ribosomes
191
Two features in all prokaryotic cells and no eukaryotic cells
Circular dna
70s ribosomes
192
What is an advantage of being half hydrophilic and hydrophobic
Allows them to pass through membranes, lipid soluble
193
What you should do when counting cells on a Microscope to ensure accuracy
Repeat count to ensure all cells have been counted
194
The difference between active and passive immunity
Active immunity has memory cells vs passive doesn’t
Active produces antibodies by plasma cells vs passive doesn’t
Passive has antibodies introduced by vaccine
Passive is short term vs active is long term
195
Resolution of an optical microscope
2-3 micro meters
196
Why would a TEM be used over others
Higher resolutions
197
Water potential from ratio
Practical
Plot a calibration curve
Convert conc to water potential
