Cellular Regulation Exam 3 Flashcards by alyssa pierce

Cellular Adaptation

Cellular adaptation is __________ structural/functional response to both normal or physiologic conditions.

Cells can adapt to physiologic demands or stress to maintain a steady state called ____________

reversible

homeostasis

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Cellular Adaptation

The most significant adaptive changes include:

_trophy
_____rophy
_____plasia
____plasia

atrophy
hypertrophy
hyperplasia
metaplasia

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Cellular Adaptation

______ is a decrease in cellular size caused by aging, *disuse or lack of blood supply, hormonal stimulation, or neural stimulation.

The amounts of er, mitochondria, and microfilaments __________.

The mechanisms include decreased protein synthesis and/or increased protein *catabolism

Atrophy

decrease

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Cellular Adaptation

___________ is an increase in the size of cells caused by increased work demands or hormonal stimulation.

The amounts of protein in the plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, microfilaments, and mitochondria ______.

Hypertrophy

increase

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Cellular Adaptation

___________ is an increase in the number of cells caused by an increased rate of cellular division.

Normal ___________ is stimulated by hormones or the need to replace lost tissues.

Hyperplasia

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Cellular Adaptation

Types of Hyperplasia

____________ hyperplasia would be the regeneration of an organ after part of it is lost (like the liver might do after part of it is lost)

Compensatory

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Cellular Adaptation

Types of Hyperplasia

________ hyperplasia occurs when cells proliferate (divide) due to hormonal stimulation (like the uterus each month or during pregnancy)

Hormonal

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Cellular Adaptation

Types of Hyperplasia

__________ is abnormal proliferation (cell dividing) of normal cells – usually in response to excessive hormonal stimulation or growth factors on target cells

Pathologic

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Cellular Adaptation

__________ is the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type.

Metaplasia

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Cellular Adaptation

_________, or atypical hyperplasia, is an abnormal change in the size, shape, and organization of mature tissue cells. It is not considered a true adaptational change but rather atypical.

Dysplasia

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Cellular Injury

Cell cycle

__ phase: period between M phase and S phase
__ phase: DNA is synthesized
__ phase: RNA and protein synthesis
__ phase: mitosis – includes nuclear and cytoplasmic division of cells

G1 phase

S phase

G2 phase

M phase

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Cellular ______ occurs if the cell is unable to maintain homeostasis. Injured cells may recover or die. Injury is caused by lack of _____, ____ radicals, caustic or toxic chemicals, infectious agents, inflammatory and immune responses, genetic factors, ____________ nutrients, or physical trauma from many causes.

injury

oxygen

free

insufficient

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Cellular Injury

Six biochemical themes are important to cell injury:

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) depletion 
-  \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ATP = more sodium = cell swells

mitochondrial ______

oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals

_______ damage

protein _______ defects

increased intracellular calcium and loss of calcium ______ state.

decreased

damage

membrane

folding

steady

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Cellular Injury

The sequence of events leading to cell _____ is commonly:

Decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production

Failure of NA-K Pump

Cellular swelling

Detachment of ribosomes from the endoplasmic reticulum

Cessation of protein synthesis

Mitochondrial swelling as a result of calcium accumulation

Vacuolation

Leakage of digestive enzymes from lysosomes

Autodigestion of intracellular structures

Lysis of the plasma membrane

Death

death

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Cellular Injury

The initial insult in hypoxic injury is usually _______.

________ is the cessation of blood flow into vessels that supply the cell with oxygen and nutrients.

ischemia

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Cellular Injury

Hypoxia is lack of __________ oxygen

Anoxia is _____ lack of oxygen

________ is insufficient blood flow to tissues, which may result in lack of oxygen and therefore subsequent cell injury

sufficient

total

Ischemia

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Cellular Injury

____ ________ cause cellular injury because they have an unpaired electron that makes the molecule unstable.

To stabilize itself, the molecule gives up an electron to another molecule or steals one. Therefore it forms injurious chemical bonds with proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates—key molecules in membranes and nucleic acids that make up DNA and RNA

Free radicals

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Cellular Injury

The damaging effects of free radicals, especially activated oxygen species, called oxidative stress, include

lipid peroxidation (damage to lipid cells)
alteration of ion _____ and transport mechanisms
fragmentation of ___
damage to mitochondria so calcium that the mitochondria was storing is released into the cytosol

pumps

DNA

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Cellular Injury

Restoration of oxygen can cause additional injury, called _______ injury. _______ injury results from the generation of highly reactive oxygen intermediates, increasing cellular oxidative stress and damage.

reperfusion

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Cellular Injury

The initial insult in chemical injury is damage to or destruction of the plasma ________.

Examples of chemical agents that cause cellular injury are carbon tetrachlorid, lead, carbon monoxide, and ethyl alcohol.

membrane

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Cellular Injury

________ injuries are caused by a failure of cells to receive or utilize oxygen. These injuries can be grouped into four general categories:

___________ – oxygen failing to reach the blood

_____________ – compression and closure of blood vessels and air passages → cerebral hypoxia or anoxia secondary to the cessation of blood flow

_________– prevention of the delivery of oxygen to the tissues or blocking of its utilization

_________ – alteration of oxygen delivery to tissues resulting from the inhalation of fluid

Asphyxial

Suffocation

Strangulation

Chemical

Drowning

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Cellular Injury

Activation of __________ and the _______ response, which occurs after cellular injury or infection, involves powerful biochemicals and proteins capable of damaging normal cells.

inflammation

immune

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Cellular Injury

Deprivation of essential nutrients can cause cellular injury by altering cellular structure and function, particularly of ________ mechanisms, chromosomes, the nucleus, and DNA.

transport

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Manifestations of Cellular Injury

An important manifestation of cell injury is the resultant metabolic disturbances of intracellular ____________ of abnormal amounts of various substances. Two categories of accumulations are

_______ cellular substances, such as water, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrate excesses
________ substances, either endogenous, such as from abnormal metabolism, or exogenous, like a virus

accumulation

Normal

Abnormal

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Manifestations of Cellular Injury Most accumulations are attributed to four types of mechanisms, all abnormal: - Endogenous substance is produced in ______ or at an increased rate - An abnormal substance, often the result of a ______ gene, accumulates - An endogenous substance is ___ effectively catabolized - A harmful exogenous substance ___________ because of inhalation, ingestion, or infection

excess mutated not accumulates

Manifestations of Cellular Injury Cellular ________ the accumulation of excessive water in the cell, is caused by the failure of ________ mechanisms and is a sign of many types of cellular injury.

Cellular swelling transport

Manifestations of Cellular Injury _____________ of organic substances—lipids, carbohydrates, glycogen, proteins, pigments—are caused by disorders in which (a) cellular uptake of the substance _______ the cell’s capacity to catabolize (digest) or use it or (b) cellular anabolism (synthesis) of the substance _______ the cell’s capacity to use or secrete it. .

Accumulations exceeds

Cellular Death ________ is known as regulated or programmed cell death, characterized by “dropping off” of cellular fragments called apoptotic bodies.

Apoptosis

Cellular Death There are four major types of necroses: ___________: Results from hypoxia caused by severe ischemia or hypoxia caused by chemical injury; occurs primarily in the kidneys, heart and adrenal glands ____________: Results from ischemic injury to neurons and glial cells in the brain; cells are digested by their own hydrolases _______: Usually results from tuberculous pulmonary infection; tissues resemble clumped cheese in that they are soft and granular ___ necrosis: Cellular dissolution caused by powerful enzymes (lipases) that occur in the breast and pancreas __________: Refer to death of tissue and results from severe hypoxic injury; occurs in the connective tissue like muscles and cellular membranes

Coagulative Liquefactive Caseous Fat Gangrenous

Cellular Death ________ means “eating of self” and as a recycling factor it is a self-destructive process and a survival mechanism. When cells are starved or nutrient-deprived, the _________ process institutes cannibalization and recycles the digested contents. ________ can maintain cellular metabolism under starvation conditions and remove damaged organelles under stress conditions, improving the survival of cells.

Autophagy autophagic

_______ death is death of the entire organism. Postmortem change is diffuse and does not involve the inflammatory response. Manifestations of _______ death include - cessation of respiration and circulation - gradual lowering of body ___________ - pupil dilation - loss of elasticity - transparency in the ____ - ______ stiffening - skin discoloration

Somatic death temperature skin muscle

Somatic Death ___________ - process of health cells being transformed into cancer cells 2. Benign vs Malignant Tumors Benign Tumor - Grows slowly - Well-defined capsule - Not invasive - Well differentiated (looks like the tissue it arose from) - Does not metastasize - Normal size and shape Malignant Tumor - Grows rapidly - Lacks a capsule - Invades nearby blood vessels, lymphatics, and surrounding structures - Loss of differentiation (anaplasia) - Can spread far beyond the tissue of origin (metastasis) - Marked variability of size and shape (pleomorphic)

Oncogenesis

Somatic Death A _________ is a tumor in the epithelial tissues. Type of cancer that originated in cells that make up the skin of tissues that line organs. Open sore, red patches, scars

carcinoma

Somatic Death An ______________ is a tumor in the ductal or glandular structures (like mammary glands in the breast). Type of cancer that starts in the glands that line the inside of the organs Most common type of colon cancer Most breast cancers are this Commonly found in the esophagus

adenocarcinoma

Somatic Death _________ are tumors in the lymph tissue.

Lymphomas

Somatic Death _________ are tumors of blood-forming cells. Four Types ALL - Least common type, most common in children AML - Most common type in adults CLL CML - found mostly in adults

Leukemias

Somatic Death _________ in situ is early stage growth that is localized to the epithelium and has not penetrated the local basement membrane or the surrounding stroma.

Carcinoma

Somatic Death _____ markers are specific biochemical markers of tumors. They are substances produced by both benign and malignant cells and are either present in or on tumor cells or found in blood, spinal fluid, or urine. _____ markers include: - hormones - enzymes - genes - antigens - antibodies

Tumor

Somatic Death ``` Initiators of Cancer: Nicotine - Nicotine - Alcohol - ________ - Helicobacor pylori - Oncogenic viruses (they turn things on/off inappropriately) - Inflammation - Pro-inflammatory cytokines lead to increased reactive oxygen species that damage DNA and increase risk for mutations that may cause cancer - Decreased immunity - ____________ - _______/inactivity ```

Hormones Chemotherapy Obesity

Somatic Death ________ cancer is cancer that occurs in people who do not have an inherited change in their DNA; they do not have a predisposition that was inherited. This presents _____ birth.

Sporadic after

Somatic Death Causes of _______ Cancer: - Creation of an oncogene - Proto-oncogene is a gene that promotes cell proliferation in a healthy cell. - An oncogene is a mutated proto-oncogene that over-promotes cell growth - __________ of a tumor suppression gene - Malfunction of a ____ taker (repair) gene - Malfunction of telomeres - Usually they shrink as healthy cells reproduce, so they shrink as people age but in cancer cells, they do not shrink so the cell can replicate endlessly

Genetic Inhibition care

Somatic Death Multiple ___ Theory (must have all six) 1. Self sufficiency in growth signals - Does not need other signals to decide to grow 2. Insensitivity to antigrowth signals 3. Evading apoptosis 4. Limitless replicative potential - Telomeres do not shrink 5. Sustained angiogenesis - Keep generating more blood supply 6. Tissue invasion and metastasis - Not encapsulated and spreads

Hit

Somatic Death ________________ is bone marrow suppression. This occurs as a complication from cancer/cancer therapy. It leads to: ______: Low hemoglobin level that causes paleness, weakness, and fatigue _______________: Greatly decreased thrombocyte level, which causes a risk for bleeding __________/neutropenia -Low leukocyte count (especially neutrophils) so there is an increased risk for infection

Myelosuppression Anemia Thrombocytopenia Leukopenia

Somatic Death Caution Signs: refer patient if one of these is occurring: - Change in ______ or bladder habits - A sore throat - Unusual bleeding or discharge - Thickening or ____ - Indigestion or dysphagia - Obvious change in wart/mole (ABCDE) - Nagging _____ or hoarseness

bowel lump cough

Somatic Death Mole Assessment - Asymmetrical shape - Border ____________ - Color changes/more than - 1 shade/black - Diameter greater than _ mm - Evolution

irregularity 6

Somatic Death Mole Assessment - Asymmetrical shape - Border ____________ - _____ changes/more than 1 shade/black - Diameter greater than _ mm - Evolution

irregularity 6 Color

Genetics An ______ is one of the variant forms of a gene at a particular locus.

allele

Genetics The _____ is the position along a chromosome that a gene occupies

locus

Genetics _____________ is when two alleles are not identical; the dominant allele will determine the phenotype.

Heterogeneous phenotype

Genetics When two alleles are the same, they are said to be __________.

homogenous

Genetics The composition of genes at a given locus is known as the ________. The outward appearance of an individual, which is the result of both ________ and environment, is the phenotype

genotype

Genetics __________ traits are traits that result from several genes acting together.

Polygenic

Genetics ______________ traits are traits that are influenced by the environment.

Multifactorial

Genetics _____________ is the process in which messenger RNA is synthesized from a DNA template by RNA polymerase. - RNA polymerase binds to a promoter site, which is a sequence of DNA that specifies the beginning of a gene - Uracil is the base used in RNA rather than thymine, so uracil binds with the adenine of the DNA template - In eukaryotes, many RNA sequences are removed by nuclear enzymes, and the remaining sequences are spliced together to form the functional mRNA that migrates to the cytoplasm. The excised sequences are called introns and the sequences that are left to code for proteins are called exons.

Transcription

Genetics _________ are inherited alterations of genetic materials.

Mutations

Genetics ________ are things that increase the frequency of mutations - Radiation - chemicals

Mutagens

Genetics ________ occurs when cells of a multiple of the normal number of chromosomes (multiples of 23). Haploid (in gametes) and diploid (in somatic cells) cells are euploid forms - When a euploid cell has more than the diploid number it is a _________ cell - _________ occurs when a zygote has three copies of each chromosome (69 chromosomes) -_________ occurs when there are four copies of each chromosome (92 chromosomes)

Euploidy polyploid Triploidy - 69 Tetraploidy - 92

Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II ___________ occurs when a cell does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes; the cell may have three copies of one chromosome (trisomy) or the presence of only one copy of given chromosome in a diploid cell (monosomy) Usually caused by nondisjunction, which is failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during meiosis or mitosis ____ Syndrome is a form of aneuploidy; it is trisomy 21. Patients with this aneuploidy have mental retardation, low nasal bridge, and protruding tongue. Risk increases as maternal age increases. ________ Syndrome is a sex chromosome aneuploidy that is characterized by a female with only one X chromosome _______ _ is when a female as more than three X chromosome; symptoms worsen with each additional X. ___________ Syndrome is when a male has more than one X chromosome (XXY or XXXY)

Aneuploidy Down Syndrome Turner’s Syndrome Trisomy X Klinefelter syndrome

Genetics _____________ is the interchanging of material between nonhomologous chromosomes Ex. exchanging between chromosome 1 and chromosome 9

Translocation

Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II Autosomal ________: only one allele is required for observable effect, there is a 50% chance of recurrence in offspring, males and females are effected equally, generations are not _______ ____________ Disease: neurologic disorder whose main features are progressive dementia and increasingly uncontrollable limb movements; usually the onset is later between 25 and 45

Dominant skipped Huntington’s

Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II Incomplete __________ occurs when an individual has the genes but the gene is not expressed.

penetrance

Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II Autosomal _________ traits affect males and females equally and in heterogeneous (carrier) parents the offspring have __% chance of being affected ______ ________ is an autosomal recessive disease that is more common in Northern Europeans ______ ____ disease is an autosomal recessive disease that affects hemoglobin shape and is more common in African Americans ___ _____ is an autosomal recessive disorder that is more common in Jewish patients

recessive 25% Cystic fibrosis Sickle cell Tay Sachs

Genetics X linked disorders come from the X chromosome so they affect _____ more often than _______ ________ Muscular Dystrophy is an x-linked recessive disorder caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene – the patient has muscle weakness that worsens over the years, difficulty walking, and large calves

males females Duchenne

Most common cancer diagnosed in women Often begins with the cells in the milk-producing ducts

Breast Cancer

Affects more than 200,000 American annually Leading cause of cancer deaths in the US among women and men

Lung Cancer

There are no early warning signs Symptoms appear once a tumor cause the gland to swell or cancers spreads beyond

Prostate Cancer

Most often begins as small noncancerous clumps of cells called adenomatous polyps - these polyps can then develop into _____ _____

Colon Cancer

Rare kidney cancer that primarily effect children Often affect age 3-4

Wilm's Tumor

Rare type of cancer that grow in the connective tissue Main types: Soft and Bone Painless lumps cause problems with breathing

Sacroma

Most common type of bone cancer in children and teens tends to occur at the ends of long bones caused by an error in the child's DNA or genetic code broken bones not cause by normal events such as falls

Osteosarcoma

Melanoma: Fair skinned Can be cured if treated early

Skin Cancer

Histologic Grading To clinically classify extent/spread use term staging ``` Staging: _ - cancer in situ _ - tumor limited to tissue of origin _ - limited local spread _ - extensive local/regional spread _ - metasasis ```

Diagnostic

Cellular Regulation Exam 3 Flashcards

(72 cards)