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Bio 106 and 107 > Cellular Respiration, Animal body, Photosynthesis, Nutrition and Digestion > Flashcards

Cellular Respiration, Animal body, Photosynthesis, Nutrition and Digestion Flashcards

Exam number 2

1
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP, which may be used as energy to power many reactions throughout the body. There are three main steps of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

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2
Q

How many ATP molecules are created in respiration (two types) per 1 glucose molecule?

A

Aerobic cellular respiration- 32 ATP (2 from glycolysis and 2 from citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) from substrate-level phophorylation. 28 ATP molecules are produced during oxidative phosphorylation.
Anaerobic cellular respiration- 2 ATP molecules (from glycolysis)

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3
Q

What are the steps in

Aerobic and Anaerobic Celullar Respiration

A

Aerobic Cellular Respiration- Glycolysis to Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle) to Oxidative Phosphorylation
Anaerobic Cellular Respiration- Glycolysis to Fermentation

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4
Q

What happens during the three steps of aerobic cellular respiration?

Glycolysis
Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

Glycolysis (in cytosol)- Begins cellular respiration by breaking down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (3 carbon compound). ATP is formed by substrate-level phosphorylation.
Pyruvate oxidation and Citric acid cycle (in mitochondria)- Oxidizes pyruvate into acetyl CoA (2 carbon compound) and creates CO2 and NADH. With each turn of Krebs cycle, 2 carbons from acetyl CoA are added, 2 CO2 released, 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 is produced. Also supplies third stage with electrons.
Oxidative phosphorylation (also mitrochondria)- Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed down the electron transport chain to O2, which picks up H+ to form water (reduction). Energy released by the redox reactions is used to pump H+ into intermembrane space. In chemiosmosis, H+ gradient drives H+ back through the enzyme complex ATP synthase in the inner membrane so synthesize ATP.

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5
Q

Define

Oxidation, Reduction, Redox Reactions

A

Oxidation- Process where there is a loss of electrons
Reduction- Process where there is a gain of electrons
Redox Reaction- Chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two molecule

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6
Q

Fermentation

A

Way of harvesting chemical energy that does not require oxygen
After glycolysis in anaerobic cellular respiration, pyruvate is reduced to lactate (lactic acid fermentation) or ethanol and CO2 (alcohol fermentation)

Under anaerobic conditions, muscle cells, yeast, and certain bacteria produce ATP by glycolysis

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7
Q

What happens in substrate-level phosphorylation

A

A phosphate group is transferred from an organic molecule to form ATP. It requires the help of an enzyme.

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8
Q

What are the molecules converted in

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

A

Photosynthesis- Light energy is used to convert H2O and CO2 into Glucose and Oxygen
Cellular Respiration- Oxygen and Glucose is broken down to make ATP, H2O and CO2

Both are redox processes.

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9
Q

What are the steps in photosynthesis

A

Light-dependent reactions and Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions)

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10
Q

Where do light reactions occur and what do they produce

A

Light reactions occur in the thylakoids which produce ATP and NADPH for the Calvin cycle. It also creates O2 from H2O.

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11
Q

Where do light-independent reactions occur and what happens

A

Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma. In the Calvin cycle, CO2 is incorporated into organic compounds in a process called carbon fixation. The result is the formation of glucose.

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12
Q

Define photoautotrophs and heterotrophs

A

Photoautotrophs- Organisms that use light energy and inorganic carbon to produce organic materials (can create food)
Heterotrophs- Consumers that feed on plant or animals or decompose organic material (cannot create food)

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13
Q
  1. Where does photosynthesis occur in a plant cell?
  2. Describe the structure of the chloroplast.
  3. What is chlorophyll?
  4. What do thylakoids contain?
A

1.Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of plant cells.
2.The chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane and contain stacks of thylakoids and thick fluid called stroma.
3.Chlorophyll (green) is a light-absorbing pigment in chloroplasts that play a role in converting solar energy into chemical energy.
4.Thylakoid membranes contain photosystems, each consisting of light-harvesting complexes and a reaction-center complex. (They absorb light and transfer energy)

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14
Q

Anterior
and
Posterior

A

Anterior
Front (in humans)
Head (in fish)
Posterior
Back (in humans)
Tail (in fish)

The sternum is anterior to the spine.

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15
Q

Dorsal
and
Ventral

A

Dorsal
Same as posterior (in humans)
Back (in fish)
Ventral
Same as anterior (in humans)
Belly (in fish)

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16
Q

Superior and Inferior

A

Superior- Toward the head or higher/above
Inferior- Away from the head or lower/under

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17
Q

Proximal and Distal

A

Proximal- Nearest point of attachment to to limb or structure
Distal- Farthest away from from attachment or origin

Higher than would be proximal (Elbow is proximal to wrist) Lower would be distal (Wrist is distal to elbow)

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18
Q

Medial and Lateral

A

Lateral- Away from midline
Medial- Toward the midline of the body

Sternum is medial to the nipples, nipples are later from the sternum

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19
Q

Define the planes

Midsagittal
Transverse/Axial/Horizontal
Coronal/Front
Oblique

A

Midsagittal- The plane splitting body in half in middle from anterior to posterior (separates left side from right side)
Transverse/Axial/Horizontal- The plane splitting body in half at the midsection area horizontally (separates top half of body from lower half)
Coronal/Front- Plane splitting body in half at the side from one shoulder to the other (separates front from back)
Oblique- 45 degree angle

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20
Q

What are is the function of these vitamins and the issues when deficient

Vitamin A
Vitamin B
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K

A
  • Vitamin A- Essential for vision and immune system function, too little causes visions loss, too much causes liver damage.
  • Vitamin B- The B-vitamin complex is involved in energy metabolism, nerve function, and the production of red blood cells. Deficiency of vitamin B9 (folate) would cause birth defects and pregnancy issues.
  • Vitamin C- Important for collagen synthesis, wound healing, and immune system function. Deficiency would cause scurvy, characterized by fatigue, muscle weakness, joint and muscle aches, and potential gum disease.
  • Vitamin D- Helps with calcium absorption and bone formation, too little causes rickets (bone deformities).
  • Vitamin E- Acts as an antioxidant, deficiency in vitamin E may lead to muscle weakness, vision problems, and impaired immune function.
  • Vitamin K- Essential for blood clotting and bone health. Vitamin K deficiency can lead to excessive bleeding and easy bruising.
21
Q

What are vitamins and minerals

A

A vitamin is an organic molecule required in very small amounts in your diet. Most function as coenzymes.
Minerals are inorganic nutrients, required in small amounts, that play a variety of roles.

22
Q

What are essential nutrients?

A

Essential nutrients are substances an animals needs but cannot produce from simple organic molecules.

Example: Essential fatty acids and essential amino acids

23
Q

What are the four main types of tissue

A
  1. Epithelial
  2. Connective
  3. Muscle
  4. Nervous
24
Q

Define

Organs and histology

A

Organs- Structures with discrete boundaries that are composed of two or more tissue types
Histology- Study of tissues and how they are arranged into organs

25
Q

Matrix

A

The extracellular matrix is a complex network of molecules that provides structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells.

Blood is connective tissue in a liquid matrix

26
Q

What are the three shapes of epithelial tissue
What are epithelials connected to adjacent cells by

A

Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar

Epithelial cells are connected to adjacent cells by specializations called intercellular junctions

27
Q

What are the four types of epithelial tissue

A
  1. Simple epithelia: A single layer of closely packed cells that line surfaces and cavities, facilitating absorption, secretion, and filtration in tissues.
  2. Stratified epithelia: Multiple layers of cells that provide protection against mechanical and chemical stress in tissues, commonly found in areas subjected to wear and tear.
  3. Pseudostratified epithelia: A single layer of cells that appears stratified due to variations in cell height, often containing cilia and goblet cells, primarily lining the respiratory passages.
  4. Transitional epithelia: Specialized stratified epithelium designed to stretch and accommodate changes in organ volume, commonly found in the urinary system lining the urinary bladder and ureters.
28
Q

What is the definition of

Anatomy and Physiology

A

Anatomy- The study of the body
Physiology- Study of function

29
Q

Positive and Negative Feedback

A

Positive Feedback- Amplify initiating stimuli, moves system away from starting state (amplifies change)

Negative Feedback- Counteract changes of different properties (reduces change)

30
Q

What are the four steps of digestion?

A
  1. Ingestion
  2. Digestion (Chemical and Mechanical)
  3. Absorption
  4. Elimination
31
Q

Difference between Intercalated Discs and Intervertebral Discs

A

Intercalated Discs- Discs that join cardiocytes from end to end (located in the heart)
Intervertebral Discs- Fibrocartilage discs that sit in between vertebrae in the vertebral column for flexibility (located in spine)

32
Q

3 Types of Muscle

A
  1. Skeletal Muscle (striated): Many peripheral nuclei
  2. Cardiac Muscle (striated): Central single nuclei
  3. Smooth Muscle (no striations): Central single nuclei
33
Q

3 Types of Cartilage

A
  1. Fibrocartilage (contains collagen fibers: Strong, flexible fibers)
  2. Hyaline Cartilage (contains collagen fibers: Strong, flexible fibers)
  3. Elastic Cartilage (contains elastic fibers: Stretchable fibers)
34
Q

Peristalsis and Mastication

A

Peristalsis: Peristalsis is the wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract. (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine)

Mastication: Mastication is the process of chewing, breaking down food into smaller pieces for digestion. (mouth)

35
Q

Define each term

Suspension feeders

Substrate feeders

Fluid feeders

Bulk feeders

A

Suspension feeders capture food particles from the surrounding medium.​

Substrate feeders live in or on their food source and eat their way through it.​

Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluids from a living host.​

Bulk feeders ingest large pieces of food.​

36
Q

What enzymes break down nucleic acids, carbohydates, fats, and proteins? And into components?

A

Carbohydrates are digested by amylase, Fats by lipase, Protein by protease, Nucleic acids by nuclease.

Protein -> Amino Acids
Carbohydrates -> Monosaccharides
Lipids -> Glycerol fatty acids
Nucleic Acids -> Nucleotides

Pepsin in gastric juice starts to break down proteins

37
Q

What is the function of

Microvilli

A

They are tiny projections on cells that increase the surface area of a cell for more effective absorption of substances.

38
Q

Functions of

Pylorus
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Cecum
Sigmoid Colon

A

Pylorus- Muscular ring which connects stomach to small intestine, contracts to let food from stomach pass to small intestine
Duodenum- Beginning of absorption in small intestine, this is where digestive juices from pancreas and gallbladder are mixed into the partially digested food.
Jejunum- As the middle part of the small intestine, the primary function of the jejunum is to absorb sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids.
Ileum- Its main function is to continue absorbing nutrients, particularly bile salts and vitamin B12 before the remaining undigested material moves into the large intestine.
Cecum- Located in the ascending colon, its function is absorption of large volumes of water and electrolytes
Sigmoid Colon- Located in the descending colon, its primary function is to store fecal material before it is ready to be eliminated from the body.

39
Q

What is the difference between

Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System

A

Central Nervous System- Brain, Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System- Nerves spread through body

40
Q

Explain each part of a neuron

Cell body
Dendrites
Axons
Myelin sheath
Synapse
Neurotransmitter
Glia

A

Cell body: contains nucleus & organelles
Dendrites: receive incoming messages
Axons: transmit messages away to other cells
Myelin sheath: fatty insulation covering axon, speeds up nerve impulses
Synapse: junction between 2 neurons
Neurotransmitter: chemical messengers sent across synapse
Glia: cells that support neurons

41
Q

Integumentary System

A

Skin, Hair, and Nail
Epidermis (Most outerlayer of skin)- Epithelial Tissue
Dermis (Deeper layer of skin)- Connective Tissue

42
Q

Which vitamins are fat or water soluble?

A

Water soluble- Vitamin B and C
Fat soluble- Vitamin A, D, E, and K

43
Q

All the organs of the alimentary canal

A

The alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus.

44
Q

What tissues attach bone to bone, or muscle to bone?
Isometric vs. Range of Motion Pain, Injury of which tissue?

A

Bone to Bone: Ligaments, Muscle to Bone: Tendons
Ligament Injury: Sprain, Tendon Injury: Strain
Isometric pain should be related to sprain, range of muscle using muscle that causes pain should be a strain.

45
Q

Which parts of the body are

Fibrocartilage, Elastic Cartilage, and Hyaline Cartilage found

A

Fibrocartilage- Pubic symphysis, menisci, and intervertebral discs
Elastic Cartilage- External ear and epiglottis
Hyaline Cartilage- articular cartilage, costal cartilage, trachea, larynx, fetal skeleton

46
Q

Vascular or Avascular

Epithelial Tissue
Cartilage Tissue (Connective)
Bone (Connective)
Nervous Tissue
Muscle Tissue

A

Epithelial- Avascular, they are nourished by connective tissue underneath
Cartilage- Avascular
Bone-Vascular
Nervous tissue- Avascular
Muscle tissue- Vascular

47
Q

Vocabulary

Fibroblasts
Adipocytes
Chondrocytes
Osteocytes
Myocytes
Perichondrium

A

Fibroblasts: Cells that produce and maintain the extracellular matrix of connective tissue
Adipocytes: Cells specialized for fat storage.
Chondrocytes: Cells embedded in cartilage, responsible for maintaining the cartilaginous matrix.
Osteocytes: Cells found in bone tissue, involved in maintaining bone matrix.
Myocytes or Muscle Fibers: Muscle cells responsible for contraction.
Perichondrium- Connective tissue that envelops cartilage at a joint.

48
Q

What molecules are oxidized or reduced in

Glycolysis
Pyruvate Oxidation and Krebs cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation

Light Reactions
Calvin Cycle

A

Cellular Respiration:
Glycolysis:
Oxidized: Glucose

Pyruvate Oxidation:
Oxidized: Pyruvate

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):
Oxidized: Acetyl CoA
Reduced: NAD⁺ (makes NADH)

Electron Transport Chain (ETC) or Oxidative Phosphorylation:
Oxidized: NADH
Reduced: Oxygen (O₂), forming water (H₂O)

Photosynthesis:
Light-Dependent Reactions:
Oxidized: Water (H₂O), leads to production of Oxygen (O₂)
Reduced: NADP⁺ to NADPH, and ADP to ATP

Calvin Cycle:
Oxidized: NADPH
Reduced: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), forming glucose

Bio 106 and 107 (4 decks)

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