Ch. 1 Flashcards
(93 cards)
1
Q
Personality
A
a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior
2
Q
is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior
A
Personality
3
Q
A relatively permanent disposition of an individual, which is inferred from behavior.
A
Trait
4
Q
Trait
A
A relatively permanent disposition of an individual, which is inferred from behavior.
5
Q
Characteristics
A
The unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as temperament, physique, and intelligence.
6
Q
The unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as temperament, physique, and intelligence.
A
Characteristics
7
Q
A set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses.
- A theory is a set of assumptions. A single assumption can never fill all the requirements of an adequate theory. A single assumption cannot serve to integrate multiple observations.
- A theory is a set of related assumptions. Isolated assumptions can neither generate meaningful hypotheses not possess internal consistency – two criteria of a useful theory.
- Theories are defined as being comprised as assumptions because the components of a theory are not proven facts in the sense that their validity has been absolutely established. They are accepted as if they were true so that scientists may make practical research that continues to build and reshape the original theory.
- Logical deductive reasoning is used by researchers to formulate hypotheses. The tenets of a theory must be stated with sufficient precision and logical consistency to permit scientists to deduce clearly stated hypotheses. These hypotheses are not components of a theory, but flow from it. It is the job of an imaginative scientist to begin with the general theory and, through deductive reasoning, arrive at a particular hypothesis that can be tested.
- The hypothesis of a theory must be testable.
A
Theory
8
Q
Theory
A
A set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses.
- A theory is a set of assumptions. A single assumption can never fill all the requirements of an adequate theory. A single assumption cannot serve to integrate multiple observations.
- A theory is a set of related assumptions. Isolated assumptions can neither generate meaningful hypotheses not possess internal consistency – two criteria of a useful theory.
- Theories are defined as being comprised as assumptions because the components of a theory are not proven facts in the sense that their validity has been absolutely established. They are accepted as if they were true so that scientists may make practical research that continues to build and reshape the original theory.
- Logical deductive reasoning is used by researchers to formulate hypotheses. The tenets of a theory must be stated with sufficient precision and logical consistency to permit scientists to deduce clearly stated hypotheses. These hypotheses are not components of a theory, but flow from it. It is the job of an imaginative scientist to begin with the general theory and, through deductive reasoning, arrive at a particular hypothesis that can be tested.
- The hypothesis of a theory must be testable.
9
Q
Philosophy
A
This term means “love of wisdom”.
10
Q
Philosopher
A
An individual who pursues wisdom through thinking and reasoning.
11
Q
An individual who pursues wisdom through thinking and reasoning.
A
Philosopher
12
Q
This term means “love of wisdom”.
A
Philosophy
13
Q
The branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of knowledge.
A
Epistemology
14
Q
Epistemology
A
The branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of knowledge.
15
Q
Theories rely on speculation that is closely tied to empirically gathered science and data.
A
Speculation
16
Q
Speculation
A
Theories rely on speculation that is closely tied to empirically gathered science and data.
17
Q
A branch of study concerned with the observation and classification of data and with the verification of general laws through the testing of hypotheses.
A
Science
18
Q
Science
A
A branch of study concerned with the observation and classification of data and with the verification of general laws through the testing of hypotheses.
19
Q
The two essential cornerstones of theory building are…
A
speculation and empirical observation.
20
Q
Speculation and empirical observation are…
A
the two essential cornerstones of theory building.
21
Q
- Reasoning that goes from from the general to the specific.
- A scientific investigator can derive testable hypotheses from a useful theory using this form of reasoning and then test these hypotheses.
A
Deductive Reasoning
22
Q
Deductive reasoning
A
- Reasoning that goes from from the general to the specific.
- A scientific investigator can derive testable hypotheses from a useful theory using deductive reasoning and then test these hypotheses.
23
Q
An educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method.
A
Hypothesis
24
Q
Hypothesis
A
An educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method.
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- Reasoning that goes from the specific to the general.
- A scientific investigator uses inductive reasoning to alter a theory to reflect new findings. As theories grow and change, other hypotheses can be drawn from them, and when tested they in turn reshape the theory.
Inductive Reasoning
26
Inductive Reasoning
- Reasoning that goes from the specific to the general.
- A scientific investigator uses inductive reasoning to alter a theory to reflect new findings. As theories grow and change, other hypotheses can be drawn from them, and when tested they in turn reshape the theory.
27
Persona
Jungian archetype that represents the side of personality that one shows to the rest of the world. Also, the mask worn by ancient Roman actors in the Greek theater and thus the root of the word “personality.”
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Jungian archetype that represents the side of personality that one shows to the rest of the world. Also, the mask worn by ancient Roman actors in the Greek theater and thus the root of the word “personality.”
Persona
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Useful theory meets the following six criteria:
(1) Generates Research
(2) Is Falsifiable
(3) Organizes Data
(4) Guides Action
(5) Is Internally Consistent
(6) Is Parsimonious
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(1) Generates Research
(2) Is Falsifiable
(3) Organizes Data
(4) Guides Action
(5) Is Internally Consistent
(6) Is Parsimonious
The six criteria of a useful theory.
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A system of classification of data according to their natural relationships.
Taxonomy
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Taxonomy
A system of classification of data according to their natural relationships.
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Expands an existing theory and is concerned with the measurement, labeling, and categorization of the units employed in theory building. This form of research has a symbiotic relationship with theory. On one hand, it provides the building blocks for the theory, and on the other, it receives its impetus from the dynamic, expanding theory. The more useful the theory, the more research generated by it; the greater the amount of descriptive research, the more complete the theory.
Descriptive Research
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Descriptive Research
Expands an existing theory and is concerned with the measurement, labeling, and categorization of the units employed in theory building. This form of research has a symbiotic relationship with theory. On one hand, it provides the building blocks for the theory, and on the other, it receives its impetus from the dynamic, expanding theory. The more useful the theory, the more research generated by it; the greater the amount of descriptive research, the more complete the theory.
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This form of research leads to an indirect verification of the usefulness of the theory.
Hypothesis Testing
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Hypothesis Testing
This form of research leads to an indirect verification of the usefulness of the theory.
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Defines units in terms of observable events or behaviors that can be measured.
Operational Definition
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Operation Definition
Defines units in terms of observable events or behaviors that can be measured.
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Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity
1. Determinism versus Free Choice
2. Pessimism versus Optimism
3. Causality versus Teleology
4. Conscious versus Unconscious Determinants of Behavior
5. Biological versus Social Influences on Personality
6. Uniqueness versus Similarities
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1. Determinism versus Free Choice
2. Pessimism versus Optimism
3. Causality versus Teleology
4. Conscious versus Unconscious Determinants of Behavior
5. Biological versus Social Influences on Personality
6. Uniqueness versus Similarities
Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity
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Causality
Holds that behavior is function of past experiences.
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Teleology
An explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or purposes.
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The primary criterion for a useful theory:
The ability to generate research.
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Holds that behavior is function of past experiences.
Causality
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An explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or purposes.
Teleology
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The ability to generate research is...
the primary criterion for a useful theory.
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Reliability
The extent to which it yields consistent results.
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The extent to which it yields consistent results.
Reliability
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Validity
The degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.
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The degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.
Validity
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The extent to which an instrument measures some hypothetical construct.
Construct Validity
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Construct Validity
The extent to which an instrument measures some hypothetical construct.
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Personality Psychologists are primarily concerned with two types of validity:
1. Construct Validity
| 2. Predictive Validity
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Construct Validity & Predictive Validity
The two types of validity with which personality psychologists are primarily concerned.
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Three important types of construct validity:
1. Convergent Validity
2. Divergent Validity
3. Discriminant Validity.
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1. Convergent Construct Validity
2. Divergent Construct Validity
3. Discriminant Construct Validity.
Three important types of construct validity.
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Convergent Construct Validity
The extent to which scores on an instrument correlate highly (converge) with scores on a variety of valid measures of the same construct (e.g. a personality inventory that attempts to measure extraversion should correlate with other measures of extraversion).
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The extent to which scores on an instrument correlate highly (converge) with scores on a variety of valid measures of the same construct (e.g. a personality inventory that attempts to measure extraversion should correlate with other measures of extraversion).
Convergent Construct Validity
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Divergent Construct Validity
An inventory that has low or insignificant correlations with other inventories that do not measure that construct.
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An inventory that has low or insignificant correlations with other inventories that do not measure that construct.
Divergent Construct Validity
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Discriminant Construct Validity
An inventory that discriminates between two groups of people known to be different.
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An inventory that discriminates between two groups of people known to be different.
Discriminant Construct Validity
63
Personality theories cover at least five distinct perspectives:
1. Psychodynamic
2. Humanistic-Positive
3. Dispositional
4. Biological-Evolutionary
5. Learning/Social-Cognitive
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1. Psychodynamic
2. Humanistic-Positive
3. Dispositional
4. Biological-Evolutionary
5. Learning/Social-Cognitive
Five of the perspectives of personality theory.
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The Five Primary Personality Theory Perspectives.
1. Psychodynamic
2. Humanistic-Positive
3. Dispositional
4. Biological-Evolutionary
5. Learning/Social-Cognitive
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Generates Research
The most important criterion of a useful theory is its ability to stimulate and guide further research. One of the six criteria for determining an effective theory.
67
The most important criterion of a useful theory is its ability to stimulate and guide further research. One of the six criteria for determining an effective theory.
Generates Research
68
Is Falsifiable
A theory must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets. If a theory is so vague and nebulous that both positive and negative research results can be interpreted as support, then that theory is not falsifiable and ceases to be useful.
69
A theory must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets. If a theory is so vague and nebulous that both positive and negative research results can be interpreted as support, then that theory is not falsifiable and ceases to be useful.
Is Falsifiable
70
Organizes Data
A useful theory should also be able to organize those research data that are not incompatible with each other. Without some organization or classification, research findings would remain isolated and meaningless. Unless data are organized into some intelligible framework, scientists are left with no clear direction to follow in the pursuit of further knowledge.
71
A useful theory should also be able to organize those research data that are not incompatible with each other. Without some organization or classification, research findings would remain isolated and meaningless. Unless data are organized into some intelligible framework, scientists are left with no clear direction to follow in the pursuit of further knowledge.
Organizes Data
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Guides Action
The ability of a theory to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day-to-day problems.
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The ability of a theory to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day-to-day problems.
Guides Action
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Is Internally Consistent
A theory whose components are logically compatible. Its limitations of scope are carefully defined and it does not offer explanations that lie beyond that scope. Also, an internally consistent theory uses language in a consistent manner; that is, it does not use the same term to mean two different things, nor does it use two separate terms to refer to the same concept.
75
A theory whose components are logically compatible. Its limitations of scope are carefully defined and it does not offer explanations that lie beyond that scope. Also, an internally consistent theory uses language in a consistent manner; that is, it does not use the same term to mean two different things, nor does it use two separate terms to refer to the same concept.
Is Internally Consistent
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Is Parsimonious
A useful theory follows the law of parsimony.
77
A useful theory follows the law of parsimony.
Is Parsimonious
78
The Psychology of Science
A subdiscipline of psychology that studies both science and the behavior of scientists.
79
Criterion of a useful theory that states that when two theories are equal on other criteria, the simpler one is prefered.
The Law of Parsimony
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The Law of Parsimony
Criterion of a useful theory that states that when two theories are equal on other criteria, the simpler one is prefered.
81
Focus only on behavior, not on hypothetical and unobservable internal states such as thoughts, feelings, drives, or motives. All behaviors are learned through association and/or its consequences (whether it is reinforced or punished). To shape desired behavior we have to understand and then establish the conditions that bring about those particular behaviors.
The cognitive perspective argues that how we think about ourselves and other people, as well as the assumptions we make and the strategies we use for solving problems, are the keys to understanding differences between people. Whether we believe we can do something successfully or not influences our behavior as well as our personality. In short, what personality we have is shaped by how we think and perceive the world.
Learning/Social-Cognitive Theories
82
Learning/Social-Cognitive Theories
Focus only on behavior, not on hypothetical and unobservable internal states such as thoughts, feelings, drives, or motives. All behaviors are learned through association and/or its consequences (whether it is reinforced or punished). To shape desired behavior we have to understand and then establish the conditions that bring about those particular behaviors.
The cognitive perspective argues that how we think about ourselves and other people, as well as the assumptions we make and the strategies we use for solving problems, are the keys to understanding differences between people. Whether we believe we can do something successfully or not influences our behavior as well as our personality. In short, what personality we have is shaped by how we think and perceive the world.
83
Learning/Social-Cognitive Theories
Focus only on behavior, not on hypothetical and unobservable internal states such as thoughts, feelings, drives, or motives. All behaviors are learned through association and/or its consequences (whether it is reinforced or punished). To shape desired behavior we have to understand and then establish the conditions that bring about those particular behaviors.
The cognitive perspective argues that how we think about ourselves and other people, as well as the assumptions we make and the strategies we use for solving problems, are the keys to understanding differences between people. Whether we believe we can do something successfully or not influences our behavior as well as our personality. In short, what personality we have is shaped by how we think and perceive the world.
84
Biological-Evolutionary Theories
Behavior, thought, feelings, and personality are influenced by differences in basic genetic, epigenetic, and neurological systems between individuals. The reason some people have different traits, dispositions, and ways of thinking stems from differences in their genotype and central nervous system (brain structures and neurochemistry).
Because they are based on evolved brain systems, human thought, behavior, and personality have been shaped by forces of evolution (natural and sexual selection) over millions of years. The body, brain, and environment co-exist and co-evolve, and so more than any other psychological perspective, this one emphasizes that what we think, feel, and do is always an interaction between nature (biological) and nurture (environment).
85
Behavior, thought, feelings, and personality are influenced by differences in basic genetic, epigenetic, and neurological systems between individuals. The reason some people have different traits, dispositions, and ways of thinking stems from differences in their genotype and central nervous system (brain structures and neurochemistry).
Because they are based on evolved brain systems, human thought, behavior, and personality have been shaped by forces of evolution (natural and sexual selection) over millions of years. The body, brain, and environment co-exist and co-evolve, and so more than any other psychological perspective, this one emphasizes that what we think, feel, and do is always an interaction between nature (biological) and nurture (environment).
Biological-Evolutionary Theories
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Dispositional Theories
Dispositional theorists argue that the unique and long-term tendencies to behave in particular ways are the essence of our personality. These unique dispositions, such as extraversion or anxiety, are called traits. The field has converged on the understanding that there are five main trait dimensions in human personality. Traits serve the function of making certain behaviors more likely in some people.
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Dispositional theorists argue that the unique and long-term tendencies to behave in particular ways are the essence of our personality. These unique dispositions, such as extraversion or anxiety, are called traits. The field has converged on the understanding that there are five main trait dimensions in human personality. Traits serve the function of making certain behaviors more likely in some people.
Dispositional Theories
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Humanistic-Positive Theories
The primary assumption of the humanistic (currently known as “positive psychology”) approach is that people strive toward meaning, growth, well-being, happiness, and psychological health. States of positive emotion and happiness foster psychological health and pro-social behavior. Understanding these evolved positive aspects of human behavior provides just as much insight into human nature as does understanding the pathological aspects. Existential theorists assume that not only are we driven by a search for meaning, but also that negative experiences such as failure, awareness of death, death of a loved one, and anxiety, are part of the human condition and can foster psychological growth.
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The primary assumption of the humanistic (currently known as “positive psychology”) approach is that people strive toward meaning, growth, well-being, happiness, and psychological health. States of positive emotion and happiness foster psychological health and pro-social behavior. Understanding these evolved positive aspects of human behavior provides just as much insight into human nature as does understanding the pathological aspects. Existential theorists assume that not only are we driven by a search for meaning, but also that negative experiences such as failure, awareness of death, death of a loved one, and anxiety, are part of the human condition and can foster psychological growth.
Humanistic-Positive Theories
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Beginning with Freud, psychoanalytic and then the more general psychodynamic approaches have focused on the importance of early childhood experience and on relationships with parents as guiding forces that shape personality development. Additionally, this view sees the unconscious mind and motives as much more powerful than the conscious awareness. Psychoanalysis traditionally used dream interpretation to uncover the unconscious thoughts, feelings, and impulses as a main form of treatment of neurosis and mental illness. After Freud, these theorists moved away from the importance of sexuality and more toward social and cultural forces.
Psychodynamic Theories
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Psychodynamic Theories
Beginning with Freud, psychoanalytic and then the more general psychodynamic approaches have focused on the importance of early childhood experience and on relationships with parents as guiding forces that shape personality development. Additionally, this view sees the unconscious mind and motives as much more powerful than the conscious awareness. Psychoanalysis traditionally used dream interpretation to uncover the unconscious thoughts, feelings, and impulses as a main form of treatment of neurosis and mental illness. After Freud, these theorists moved away from the importance of sexuality and more toward social and cultural forces.
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Predictive Validity
The extent that a test predicts some future behavior.
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The extent that a test predicts some future behavior.
Predictive Validity
