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anatomy > Ch. 23; the respiratory system > Flashcards

Ch. 23; the respiratory system Flashcards

1
Q

what is respiration?

where does it occur?

what body system provides the means for gas exchange?

A
  • gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
  • between the atmosphere and body cells
  • the respiratory system
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2
Q

cells need what for aerobic ATP production (2)

A

oxygen and the disposal of the CO2 it produces

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3
Q

Describe the structural organization of the RS and what is consists of

A
  • Upper respiratory tract (above the trachea): nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx
  • Lower respiratory tract (trachea and below): trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli
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4
Q

what passageways does the respiratory system consist of?

other functions of the RS?

A
  • passageways in the head, neck, trunk, and lungs
  • detection of odors via olfactory receptors, and sound production via vocal cords
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5
Q

Describe the functional organization of the RS

A
  • structure in the conducting zone (nose to terminal bronchioles) transports air; nose leads to terminal bronchioles, warms and humidifies air
  • structures of the respiratory zone (respiratory bronchiole and alveoli) participate in gas exchange; respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
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6
Q

describe the mouth within the conducting zone (3)

A
  • primarily an organ of the digestive system
  • role in respiration: acts in parallel with the nose as a conduit for air entry and exit
  • important for breathing under exertion (controlled/conscious breathing)
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7
Q

describe the nose/nasal sinuses within the conducting zone (4)

A
  • connected to 4 pairs of sinuses
  • sinuses are air-filled spaces that can fill with mucous
  • serve to warm and humidify incoming air
  • contributes to resonance of voice
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8
Q

what are the parts of the pharynx

A

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

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9
Q

describe the nasopharynx:

oropharynx:

laryngopharynx:

A
  • passage for AIR only; adenoids (lymph tissue) lie in the posterior wall
  • conduit for digestion and respiration; tonsils (lymph) found at the border
  • conduit for both air and food; opens into larynx and esophagus
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10
Q

describe the larynx (4)

A
  • directs air into the trachea and food into the esophagus
  • contains the vocal cords
  • The superior portion is lined with stratified squamous
  • the inferior portion is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and a mucous membrane that moves trapped debris into the pharynx for swallowing
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11
Q

describe the trachea (4)

A
  • extends from the larynx to its division into left and right bronchi
  • contains hyaline cartilage between fibrous tissue ligaments
  • the CARINA is a ridge of cartilage that senses solid or liquid substances and triggers violent coughing to expel them
  • pseudostratified ciliated columnar & goblet cells on the interior form the mucociliary escalator
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12
Q

describe how the bronchi’s branch

describe bronchi

describe bronchioles

A
  • primary bronchi > secondary bronchi > tertiary bronchi > primary bronchioles > terminal bronchioles
  • supported by cartilage; interior contain ciliated mucous cells
  • lack cartilage but have smooth muscle instead; lack mucous but still have ciliated cells
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13
Q

define mucosa layer (3)

A
  • respiratory lining
  • epithelium resting on a basement membrane
  • underlying lamina propria made of areolar connective tissue
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14
Q

how does respiratory epithelium change (5)

A
  • becomes thinner from the nasal cavity to the alveoli
  • starts as pseudostratified ciliated columnar
  • changes to simple ciliated columnar
  • changes to simple cuboidal
  • changes to simple squamous
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15
Q

what is the exception on the epithelium of the respiratory

A

stratified squamous can be found in high abrasion areas such as the oropharynx, laryngopharynx, vocal cords, and the superior portion of the larynx

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16
Q

where can the cell types be found

A

pseudostratified ciliated columnar: lines the nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, nasopharynx, trachea, inferior portion of the larynx, main bronchi, and lobar bronchi

Simple ciliated columnar: lines segmental bronchi, smaller bronchi, and large bronchioles

simple ciliated cuboidal: lines the terminal and respiratory bronchioles (progressively loses cilia)

simple squamous: forms both the alveolar ducts and alveoli

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17
Q

Describe mucous secretions (4)

A
  • produced by goblet cells of epithelia AND mucus/serous glands of the lamina propria
  • contains mucin protein: increases mucus viscosity and serves to trap dust, dirt, pollen
  • we secrete 1-7 tablespoons a day
  • contains defenses; lysozymes (antibacterial enzyme), defensins (antibacterial protein), immunoglobulin A (antibody)
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18
Q

What is sputum?

A

The name for mucus when it’s coughed up with saliva and trapped substances

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19
Q

describe the exterior of the lungs, the lung pleura (3)

A
  • visceral pleura: tightly covers each lung
  • parietal pleura: lines inner wall of thoracic cavity
  • pleural cavity: small space between the layers containing pleural fluid secreted by mesothelial cells to lubricate and provide a barrier
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20
Q

describe respiratory bronchioles. describe alveolar ducts. describe alveolar sacs. All these structures are very ______

A
  • respiratory bronchioles: minimal smooth muscle
  • alveolar ducts: short conduits of mainly connective tissue
  • alveolar sacs: grape-like clusters of alveoli that opened from the alveolar ducts
  • structures are very elastic
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21
Q

describe the alveoli (4)

A
  • location of gas exchange
  • thin-walled with a large lumen
  • intimate contact between inhaled air and blood in the pulmonary capillaries that wrap the alveolar walls
  • surface area of 70 m2 (size of a singles tennis court)
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22
Q

what are type 1 alveolar cells (pneumocytes)

A
  • most common cell type; simple squamous
  • connected to a thin basement membrane with a pulmonary endothelial cell on the other side (respiratory membrane)
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23
Q

what are type 2 alveolar cells

A
  • cuboidal cells; make and secrete surfactant
  • surfactant: reduces surface tension between water molecules lining inner alveoli surfaces
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24
Q

what are dust cells, 2

A
  • alveolar macrophages; resident alveolar immune cells
  • scavenge microorganisms and other particles
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25
Q

where does deoxygenated blood flow

A

pulmonary trunk > pulmonary arteries > lobar arteries > capillary beds surrounding alveoli

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26
Q

where does oxygenated blood flow

A

venules > small veins > pulmonary veins

27
Q

blood flow in the lungs is __________

describe zone 1 pressure

describe zone 2 pressure

describe zone 3 pressure

A
  • UNEQUAL
  • zone 1: alveolar pressure is higher than arterial/venous pressure (weakest)
  • zone 2: arterial pressure is higher than alveolar/venous pressure (most gas exchange)
  • zone 3: arterial and venous pressure are higher than alveolar pressure (most blood flow)
28
Q

gas exchange occurs when _______ and _______ are matched. explain

A
  • ventilation; perfusion
  • ventilation (air moving in and out of the lungs, V) needs to match perfusion (blood flow in the lungs, Q)
29
Q

what are alveolar dead spaces

A

the volume of air in regions that don’t participate in gas exchange

30
Q

what are V/Q ratios

A
  • they vary in different regions of the lung in healthy individuals but also under pathological conditions
  • in ideal conditions, as in the middle of the lungs, the ratio is 1
31
Q

Normal V/Q means?

Low V/Q means?

High V/Q means?

A
  • 1 at middle of lungs; normal airflow; normal blood flow
  • <1 at middle of lungs; normal blood flow; impaired ventilation causing collapsed alveolus
  • > 1 at middle of lungs; normal airflow; impaired blood flow causing hypertension or pulmonary embolism
32
Q

describe pulmonary ventilation 3

A
  • breathing; air movement between the atmosphere and alveoli
  • inspiration: brings air into the lungs, inhaling
  • expiration: forces air out of the lungs (exhalation)
33
Q

what is quiet breathing

what is forced breathing

A
  • Eupnea: rhythmic breathing at rest, controlled autonomically
  • vigorous breathing that accompanies exercise or by thought
34
Q

what do we rely on when going through ventilation 2

A
  • autonomic nuclei in the brainstem; regulates breathing activity
  • skeletal muscles (diaphragm) contract and relax to change the volume of the thorax
35
Q

air moves ____ its pressure gradient

A

DOWN -> Volume change results from changes in the pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere

36
Q

what are the determinants of gas pressure (3)

A
  • AMOUNT OF GAS PARTICLES; directly related, if the number of gas particles in a given volume increases, pressure increases
  • TEMPERATURE; directly related, if the temperature increases while all other factors remain the same, pressure increases
  • VOLUME OF SPACE; inversely related, if the volume increases while all other factors remain the same, pressure decreases
37
Q

how do you calculate airflow

A
  • F = △P/R
  • F = flow
  • △P = difference in pressure between atmosphere and intrapulmonary pressure
  • R = resistance
38
Q

T/F air flows from areas of high to low until pressure is EQUAL

A

true

39
Q

define air flow; what does it depend on (3)

A
  • the amount of air moving in and out of the lungs with each breath
  • depends on the pressure gradient established between the atmospheric pressure and intrapulmonary pressure
  • depends on the resistance that occurs due to conditions within the airways, lungs, and chest wall
40
Q

what is boyles law

A

P1V1=P2V2

41
Q

what factors influence airflow 3

A
  • pressure gradient > larger difference = faster flow
  • resistance > relies on diameter (bronchoconstriction and dilation) larger diameter = more airflow
  • compliance > how easy it is for our lungs to expand, governed by serous fluid and surfactant (reduces surface tension)
42
Q

what is transpulmonary pressure?

what is intrapulmonary pressure?

what is intrapleural pressure?

what is atmospheric pressure?

A
  • pressure differential between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures; represents force that tends to collapse the lungs
  • pressure in the alveoli
  • pressure in the space between the visceral and parietal pleura > high difference is BAD because it can’t be equalized
  • pressure in the atmosphere that surrounds the body
43
Q

describe the process of resting breathing (6)

A
  • prior to inspiration, atmospheric pressure equals intrapulmonary
  • lungs start to expand, intrapulmonary pressure decreases
  • air moves from the atmosphere to the lungs
  • pressures return to equilibrium
  • during expiration, thoracic volume declines and intrapulmonary pressure becomes greater than atmospheric
  • air moves out of the lungs until pressure is equal again
44
Q

list all the non-breathing air movements (7)

A

coughing, sneezing, yawning, hiccup, laughing, crying, Valsalva maneuver

45
Q

what is coughing/sneezing:

yawning:

hiccups:

laughing/crying:

Valsalva maneuver:

A
  • respiratory system trying to clear irritants from the airways
  • results from the deepest possible breath
  • spasm of the diaphragm that causes rapid bursts of air through the vocal cords
  • when emotional states drive the ventilatory pattern
  • attempt to exhale against a closed airway
46
Q

what is the Haldane effect

A

CO2 more readily binds to unoxygenated hemoglobin

47
Q

what is partial pressure, 2

A
  • the contribution of any gas in a mixture to the mixture’s total pressure
  • partial pressure = total pressure X fraction of gas
48
Q

what percentage of blood O2 is transported by hemoglobin

how many hemoglobin molecules does each RBC contain

how much oxygen molecules can one RBC carry

A
  • 98%
  • 250-300 million
  • up to 1.2 billion
49
Q

what is an oxygen reserve

what does it provide

A
  • oxygen that remains bound to hemoglobin after passing through the systemic circulation
  • it provides a mean for additional oxygen to be delivered under increased metabolic demands like exercise
50
Q

diffusion is based on ___ ___ _____

describe diffusion in the lungs:

describe diffusion in the tissues:

A
  • gas’ partial pressures
  • in the lungs, external respiration, O2 moves from air to blood and CO2 moves from blood to air.
  • in the tissues, internal respiration, O2 moves from blood to tissue and CO2 moves from tissue to blood
51
Q

where does hemoglobin release oxygen

A

(SOME) at systemic capillaries, most stays in oxygen reserves

52
Q

how is CO2 transported in the blood

A

> CO2 diffuses into the bloodstream
7% remains dissolved in the plasma
93% diffuses into RBCs
23% bind to Hb forming carbaminohemooglobin (Hb+CO2)
70% is converted to H2CO3 by carbonic anhydrase
H2CO3 dissociates into H+ and HCO3-
H+ is removed by buffers, Hb
HCO3- moves out of RBCs in exchange for Cl- (chloride shift)

53
Q

as blood leaves the lungs, what percentage of it is saturated?

after passing systemic cells at rest, what % are saturated?

how much transported oxygen is actually released?

A
  • 98%
  • 75%
  • 20-25%
54
Q

vigorous exercise produces?

A

A significant drop in saturation. Blood leaving the capillaries in active muscles is only about 35% saturated.

55
Q

what is H2CO3

what is HCO3

A

H2CO3= carbonic acid

HCO3= bicarbonate

56
Q

carbon dioxide enters the alveolus by (3)

A
  • direct diffusion from plasma (not in erythrocytes)
  • detaching from hemoglobin
  • converted from bicarbonate
57
Q

what is pneumonia?

caused by?

symptoms?

who is affected more?

A
  • infection of the lung resulting in alveoli filling with fluid, exudate, or pus
  • caused by bacterial/viral infection
  • cough, fever, difficulty breathing, weakness, chills, increased heart rate, chest pain during inhalation
  • affects older/immunocompromised individuals for a longer amount of time than younger adults
58
Q

what is laryngitis

symptoms

causes

effects

A
  • inflammation of the larynx
  • hoarse voice, sore throat, fever
  • caused by bacterial/viral/fungal infection or overuse
  • can infect the epiglottis and may lead to sudden airway obstruction esp in children
59
Q

what is apnea/sleep apnea; how can it occur; how is it treated. 4

A
  • the absence of breathing
  • sleep apnea = temporary cessation of breathing during sleep
  • can occur voluntarily by swallowing/holding breath; may be drug induced; can result from neurological disease or trauma
  • treated with CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure) machine
60
Q

what is bronchitis?

what is acute bronchitis? 3

chronic bronchitis? 4

A
  • inflammation of the bronchi caused by bacterial/viral infection or inhaled irritants
  • Acute: Occurs during/after infection. Includes coughing, sneezing, pain with inhalation, and fever. Resolve in 10-14 days.
  • Chronic: Occurs after long-term irritant exposure. Includes large amounts of mucus and coughing lasting for 3 months. Permanent changes to bronchi. Increases likelihood of future infections.
61
Q

what is atelectasis (3)

A
  • collapsed lung
  • occurs if intrapleural and intrapulmonary pressures equalize due to air in the pleural cavity
  • lung remains collapsed until air is removed from the pleural space
62
Q

what is pneumothorax (5)

A
  • air in the pleural cavity
  • air introduced externally > penetrating wound to the chest
  • air introduced internally > rib lacerates lung or alveolus ruptures
  • may cause intrapleural and intrapulmonary pressures to equalize
  • small causes get resolved spontaneously, large causes are medical emergencies requiring a tube to remove air from the pleural space
63
Q

what is Cystic fibrosis? (4)

A
  • defective chloride channels prevent chloride ions from being pumped from epithelial cells into the lumen of the respiratory tract
  • without chloride on the cell’s surface, water fails to hydrate the cells
  • causes mucus to become thick and cilia not able to mobilize it > mucus blocks the respiratory tract. Ducts of the pancreas and salivary glands can also be blocked. The backup of digestive enzymes can destroy the pancreas.
  • presents with a high incidence of bacterial infections

anatomy (17 decks)

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