1
Q
What is a physical exam?
A
Checking a patient’s weight & blood pressure, as well as heart rate, temperature
2
Q
What is a pelvic exam?
A
Exam of the pelvic organs: vagina, cervix, uterus, ovaries, to make sure they’re healthy
3
Q
What is a pap test?
A
Collecting cells from the cervix to check for cancer
4
Q
What is included in a hormone test?
A
FSH, Estrogen, Progesterone, Thyroid
5
Q
What is the function of the testes?
A
To produce sperm and testosterone
6
Q
What is the function of the ducts in the male reproductive system?
A
Transport, store, assist in maturation of sperm
7
Q
The penis contains the urethra which is?
A
It contains, the urethra, a passageway for ejaculation of semen and excretion of urine
8
Q
A
9
Q
What is cryptorchidism? What are the percentages of infants affected? When do you need treatment before?
A
- A condition in which one or both testicles fail to move from the abdomen, where they develop before birth, into the scrotum
- 3% of full term & 30% of premature infants
- Surgical treatment necessary before 18 months
10
Q
What is the dartos muscle?
A
Smooth muscle, causes wrinkling
11
Q
What is the role of the cremaster muscle?
A
- Moves the testis, promoting healthy and mobile sperm
- Lowers and raises the testis in order to control its temperature
12
Q
Why are the testes outside the abdominal cavity? What are the scrotal temperatures?
A
The arteries that supply blood to the scrotum function as an additional cooling/ heating exchange mechanism.
-As a consequence of these adaptations average scrotal temperatures in humans are typically 2.50 to 30 C lower than body temperature (370 C), and spermatogenesis is most efficient at 340-350 C.
13
Q
What is a hernia?
A
A rupture or separation of a portion of the abdominal wall resulting in the protrusion of a part of an organ
14
Q
What does prenatal testosterone secretion do?
A
Assists testicular descent and development of male external gential
15
Q
A
16
Q
What are some examples of puberty changes for males?
A
Stimulation of anabolism (musculoskeletal growth), enlargement of genetalia, voice changes, sebaceous gland serections thicken/increase which lead to acne
17
Q
Secretion of testoterone at puberty leads to what?
A
leads to development of male secondary sexual characterisitics
18
Q
How long does spermatogenesis take
A
65-75 days
19
Q
What is puberty? When ages does it begin?
A
- Burst of hormones activate maturation of the gonads.
- Around 9-14 years of age
20
Q
What is it called when puberty is too early vs too late?
A
- Abnormally early: precocious puberty
- Abnormally late: eunuchoidism
21
Q
What is the role of the pituitary in leydig cells and sertoli cells? What are the functions of the Interstitial cells (Leydig cells) and Sertoli Cells (sustentacular cells)?
A
- At puberty, the anterior pituitary increases secretion of LH and FSH by gonadotrophs
LH stimulates Leydig cells: secretes testosterone (synthesized from cholesterol) - FSH stimulates sertoli cells: increases the rate of spermatogenesis
-Sertoli cells release inhibin, a hormone that inhibits FSH
22
Q
Sperms are ____ that contain ____ chromosomes. What are the percentages of autosomes and chromosomes that sperm contain?
A
- haploids, 23
- 50% containing 22 autosomes and X chromosomes, 50% containing 22 autosomes and Y chromosomes
23
Q
Once ejaculated, how long can sperm survive in the female reproducrive tract?
A
5 days
24
Q
Describe the structure of a sperm
Describe what a sperm is, and the 3 parts and what they contain
A
- The sperm is the male gamete produced in the testes of the male reproductive system. It consists of three parts - head, middle piece and the tail.
- The topmost part of the sperm has an oval shaped head which contains the male genetic material, i.e. all the genetic information necessary to make a young one. It also contains the acrosome which enables the sperm to penetrate the egg and protects the sperm
- Just below the head is the middle piece and it contains mitochondria which provides the energy to the sperm for movement.
- Just beneath the middle piece, there is a long structure called the tail of the sperm which helps in movement.
25
What are some components that mature spermatozoon lacks?
* Endoplasmic reticulum
* Golgi apparatus
* Lysosomes/peroxisomes
* Other intracellular structures that reduces sperm size/mass
26
What are the function of the epididymis? (3)
* It monitors and adjusts fluid produced by seminiferous tubules
* Recycles damaged spermatozoa
* Stores and protects spermatozoa
-Faciliates functional maturation, and motility increases over 2 weeks
27
What is the pathway of sperm?
| From seminiferous tubules to ductus deferens
Seminiferous tubules
Straight tubules
Rete Testis
Efferent Ducts
Ductus Epididymis
Ductus (vas) deferens
28
What does a vasectomy do?
A vasectomy works by stopping sperm getting into a man's semen, the fluid that he ejaculates.
Sperm leaves the testicles through two tubes called the vas deferens, and mixes with other fluids to make semen
A vasectomy blocks or cuts each vas deferens tube, keeping sperm out of your semen. Sperm cells stay in your testicles and are absorbed by your body.
29
What are the 7 steps of sperm fertilization?
1. The sperm approaches the egg
2. The sperm's acrosomal enzymes digest the egg's jelly coat
3. Proteins on the sperm head bind to egg receptors
4. The Plasma membrane of sperm and egg fuse
5. The sperm nucleus enters the egg cytoplasm
6. A fertilization membrane forms
7. The nuclei of sperm turns into the zygote nucleus
30
31
What are seminal vesicles/ their location? What is their function?
* Pair of pouch like organs found posterior to the base of the urinary bladder
* Contributes to 60% of semen volume (thick, clear, alkaline fluid)
* Sperm cells become highly motile when mixed with this fluid
32
What structure procduces fructose, prostaglandin, and fibrinogen? What is the function of fructose, prostaglandin, and fibrinogen?
They are produced by the seminal vesicles
* **Fructose**: its role is to provide energy for spermatozoa motility.
* **Prostaglandin**: stimulate smooth muscle contractions of female and male reproductive tracts
* **Fibrinogen**: facilitates in seminal clotting after ejaculation. This clotting of the semen helps to keep the ejaculated sperms in the female reproductive tract
33
Where is the prostate gland located?
Chesnut size located inferior to bladder
34
Describe the 3 functions of the prostate gland
| Also describe seminal liquefaction
1. Secretes 25%-30% of ejaculate
2. Milky, slightly acidic (6.5ph)
3. Enzymes for seminal liquefaction (pepsinogen, lysozyme, amylase)
***Seminal liquefaction**: After ejaculation, the semen forms a gel which provides protection for the sperm from the acidic environment of the vagina. The gel is liquefied within 20-30 minutes by enzymes from the prostate gland. This liquefaction is important to free the sperm so transportation may occur)
35
What is prostatitis? What are some symptoms?
Swelling of the prostate gland that produces seminal fluid
* Difficult urination, urinary frequency, pain ->could be asymptomatic
36
# Prostate Cancer
Describe what number in leading cause of cancer, average age at diagnosis, what type of tests can detect it, and what treatments?
* Prostate cancer is the 2nd leading cause of cancer & cancer deaths in men
* Avg age at diagnosis: 72
* Detected by blood test or digital rectal exam
* Treated surgically or with drugs to reduce prostate size or activity
37
What are the 4 functions of the bulbourethral or Cowper's Glands?
* Connects to spongy urethra
* Clear, viscous secretion (alkaline pre-ejaculate)
* Lubricate the urethra for spermatozoa to pass through
* Neutralizes the traces of acidic urine in urethra
38
39
What is not good news when doing semen fertility analysis?
Lack of forward motility
Low count or abnormal shapes
40
41
What is the penis a passageway for? What is the sympathetic vs parasympathetic action for erection and ejaculation?
Penis: passageway for urine and sperm
**Erection**: parasympathetic
**Ejaculation**: sympathetic
42
What is a circumcision? When is it usually performed? What are some health benefits?
A surgical procedure in which part of the entire prepuce (foreskin) is removed
* Usually performed just after delivery or several days after birth
* Benefits: lower risk of urinary tract infections, protection against penile cancer, lower risk for STD
43
What is emission versus ejaculation? What are 2 disorders of the penis?
* Emission: movement of sperm from vas deferens into the urethra adding semininal fluid along the way->under sympathetic control
* Ejaculation: expulsion of semen due to strong muscular contractions- spinal reflex-> starts with contraction of the bulbospongiosus muscle
* Erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation
44
What are the 4 major functions of the female reproductive system?
* Produces sex hormones - estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, relaxin
* Produces and releases mature gametes [secondary oocytes]
* Protects and supports developing embryo / fetus
* Nourishes newborn infant
45
What is the functions of the ovaries?
produce secondary oocytes & hormones
46
What are the functions of the uterine/fallopian tubes?
site of fertilization, transport fertilized ova
47
What are the functions of the uterus?
1. pathway of sperms from vagina to the fallopian tube
2. site of implantation of a fertilized ovum
3. development of embryo/fetus
48
What do the mammary glands do?
Produce milk
49
What does the vulva refer to?
1. mons pubis (created by adipose tissue)
2. erectile tissue of the clitoris
3. labia majora (outer limits of vulva) and labia minora (covers the vestibule)
4. vestibule, the area between the labia minora
5. vaginal orifice (opening)
50
What are the functions
51
52
Describe the histology of the uterine tube with the 3 layers
53
1. Fertilization occurs within...after ovulation
2. Zygote reaches uterus about...after ovulation
1. fertilization occurs within 24 hours after ovulation
2. zygote reaches uterus about 7 days after ovulation
54
What is an ectopic pregnancy?
It happens when a fertilized egg gets stuck on its way to the uterus, often because the fallopian tube is damaged by inflammation or is misshapen. And occurs outside of the uterine cavity, and over 98% implant in the Fallopian tube
55
What is the uterus (structure)/location?
- pear shape muscular organ between urinary bladder and rectum
56
57
What are the 3 layers of the uterus?
Endometrium. This is the inner lining. It's shed during a menstrual period.
Myometrium. This is the thick middle muscle layer of the corpus or fundus. It expands during pregnancy to hold the growing baby. It contracts during labor to push the baby out.
Serosa. This is the smooth outer layer. It covers the uterus and makes it easy for the uterus to slide and move within the pelvis as needed.
58
What does the endometrium shed during menstruation and what does it replace?
* stratum functionalis
– shed during menstruation
* stratum basalis
– replaces stratum functionalis each month
59
What is a hysterectomy? What are some indications for surgery? What is a complete hysterectomy vs a radical hysterectomy?
Surgical removal of the uterus [most common gynecological operation]
* **Indications for surgery**
– ovarian cysts, excessive bleeding, cancer of cervix, uterus or ovaries
* **Complete hysterectomy** removes cervix
* **Radical hysterectomy** removes uterus, tubes, ovaries, part of vagina, pelvic lymph nodes and supporting ligaments
60
What are glandular alveoli? What are lactiferous sinuses?
**Glandular alveoli:** grapelike clusters of milk-secreting glands
**Lactiferous sinuses** :stores milk before draining into a lactiferous duct
61
62
What is the pathway of the breast structures from visceral to superficial?
63
What is a breast augmentation (augmentation mammaplasty)? Describe the procedure
A surgical procedure to increase breast size and shape. The most commonly used implants are filled with either a saline solution or silicone gel. The incision for the implant is made under the breast, around the areola, in the armpit, or in the navel. Then a pocket is made to place the implant either directly behind the breast tissue or beneath the pectoralis major muscle.
64
What is a breast reduction or a (reduction mammaplasty)? Why is it done and what does the most common procedure involve?
A surgical procedure that involves decreasing breast size by removing fat, skin, and glandular tissue. This procedure is done because of chronic back, neck, and shoulder pain; poor posture; circulation or breathing problems; a skin rash under the breasts; restricted levels of activity; self-esteem problems.
The most common procedure involves an incision around the areola, down the breast toward the crease between the breast and abdomen, and then along the crease. The surgeon removes excess tissue through the incision.
65
66
What is oogenesis and where does it take place?
Oogenesis is the process of the formation of a mature ovum from the oogonia in females.
It takes place in the ovaries.
During oogenesis, a diploid oogonium or egg mother cell increases in size and gets transformed into a diploid primary oocyte.
67
How many chromosomes do diploid vs haploid cells have?
**Diploid cells** (2n) have 46
chromosomes
**Haploid cells**
(n) have 23 chromosomes.
67
What is the female reproductive cycle regulated by and what structures?
Regulated by monthly hormone cycle
– anterior pituitary, hypothalamus & ovary
68
Ovarian cycle [oogenesis]
– changes in....
Ovarian cycle [oogenesis]
– changes in ovary during & after maturation of oocyte
69
What does the uterine (menstrual) cycle involve?
– involves changes in the endometrium
– preparation of uterus to receive fertilized ovum
– if implantation does not occur, the stratum functionalis is shed during menstruation
70
What does a mature Graafian follicle in the ovary become?
In the ovary, mature Graafian follicle become a **corpus luteum**, a temporary structure essential for establishing and maintaining pregnancy in females
71
What does corpus luteum secrete/responsible for and what happens after 14 days if the 2nd oocyte is not fertilized?
* It secretes **estrogens and progesterone,** responsible for the thickening of the endometrium and its development and maintenance, respectively
* After approx. 14 days, if the 2nd oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum **stops secreting progesterone** and degenerates into a corpus albicans ( fibrous scar tissue)
72
What happens to the uterine lining?
During ovulation, estrogen thickens your endometrium, while progesterone prepares your uterus for pregnancy. If conception doesn't occur, progesterone levels drop. The progesterone drop triggers your uterus to shed its lining (sloughing) as your menstrual period.
73
What happens to the uterine lining is pregnancy occurs?
IF pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum is
“rescued” from degeneration by an LH-like
hormone called human chorionic gonadotrophin [hCG]
With hCG support, the corpus luteum goes on to produce hormones
74
What are the 4 functions of estrogen?
75
What is the function of inhibin?
Inhibits release of FSH
76
What are the 2 functions of relaxin?
1. Inhibits contractions of uterine smooth muscle
2. During labor, increases flexbility of pubic symphysis and dilates uterine cervix
77
What are the 2 functions of progesterone?
78
How long does the female reproductive cycle last? What are the 4 phases of the female reproductive cycle?
Ranges form 24-36 days
* 4 phases:
1. Menstrual
2. (Follicular) Preovulatory
3. Ovulatory
4. (Luteal) Postovulatory
79
What is the menstrual phase?
This is the time of your cycle when you have a period, also known as menses. The first day of your period is a visual marker that you and your healthcare provider use to distinguish both the beginning and end of an Ovulation Cycle. This phase typically lasts 4 to 7 days.
80
What is the follicular (preovulatory) phase?
The pituitary gland in the brain releases a hormone to stimulate the production of follicles on the surface of an ovary. Usually, only one follicle will mature into an egg. This can happen from day 10 of your cycle. During this phase, your uterus lining also thickens in preparation for pregnancy.
81
What is the ovulatory phase
Ovulation is a phase in the menstrual cycle when your ovary releases an egg (ovum). Once an egg leaves your ovary, it travels down your fallopian tube where it waits to be fertilized by sperm. On average, it happens on day 14 of a 28-day menstrual cycle.
82
What is the luteal phase? When does it occur?
After the follicle releases its egg, it changes into the corpus luteum. This structure releases hormones, mainly progesterone and some estrogen. The rise in hormones keeps your uterine lining thick and ready for a fertilized egg to implant.
If you do get pregnant, your body will produce human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). This is the hormone pregnancy tests detect. It helps maintain the corpus luteum and keeps the uterine lining thick.
If you don’t get pregnant, the corpus luteum will shrink away and be resorbed. This leads to decreased levels of estrogen and progesterone, which causes the onset of your period.
83
* The high levels of estrogens during the last part of the preovulatory phase have what type of feedback effect?
They have a positive feedback effect on cells secreting LH and GnRH, thus bringing about ovulation
84
1. High levels of estrogens from almost mature follicle stimulate release of more...
2. ... promotes release of ...and more ..
3. ...surge brings about ovulation
1. GnRH and LH
2. GnRH, FSH, LH
3. LH
85
What is amenorrhea? What are some causes of it?
Absence of menstruation
- Hormone imbalance, extreme weight loss or low body fat as with rigorous athletic training
86
What is dysmenorrhea? What are some causes?
Pain associated with menstruation
- severe enough to prevent normal functioning
- uterine tumors, ovarian cysts, endometriosis [growth beyond or outside the uterus of tissue resembling endometrium] or intrauterine device
87
What is abnormal uterine bleeding? What are some causes?
Bleeding from the uterus that is longer than usual or that occurs at an irregular time.
* Fibroid tumors or hormonal imbalance
88
What are the 5 types of birth control?
1. Natural
2. Barrier
3. Hormonal contraception (short term reversible)
4. Hormonal contraception (long term reversible)
5. Irrversible
89
What is natural birth control?
Natural: coitus interruptus, calendar method, temperature...
! HIGH FAILURE RATES!
90
What is the barrier birth control method?
male and female condom
-double protection (pregnancy and STD)
- Failure rate is almost as high as with natural methods
91
What is the hormonal contraceptions (short term reversible)?
Combined pills, progestogen-only pills, monthly or quarterly injections, patch, vaginal ring
92
What is the hormonal contraception (long acting reversible)?
IUD, IUS, implants
93
What is the irreversible contraception?
Sterilization, vasectomy and tubal implant
94
What is CHC?
Combined (estrogen + progestogen) Hormonal contraception
95
What do CHCs maintain through the cycle? How does it work?
CHCs maintain negative feedback
through the cycle
Mimics hormonal state of early
pregnancy: prevents further ovulation
Continuous progestogen prevents
mid-cycle LH surge
96
97
What is spermatogenesis? Where does it take place? What happens during it?
Spermatogenesis is the process of the production of sperms from the immature germ cells in males.
It takes place in seminiferous tubules present inside the testes.
During spermatogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium (male germ cell) increases its size to form a diploid primary spermatocyte.
98
What are the stages of spermatogenesis?
(1) spermatogonia,
(2) primary spermatocytes,
(3) secondary spermatocytes,
(4) spermatids,
(5) spermatozoa
99
A diploid spermatogenesis produces what? What are they transformed into?
4 haploid spermatids
They are transformed into spermatozoa (sperm) by spermiogenesis
Biol 40C
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