Ch 3 Biological Psychology Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
What is an EEG?
A
Electroencephalograph:
Recording of brain’s electrical activity at the surface of the skull
2
Q
What is a CT?
A
Computed Tomography:
Scanning technique using multiple X-Rays to construct 3D images
3
Q
What is an MRI?
A
Magnetic Resonance Imaging:
Uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure
4
Q
What is a PET Scan?
A
Positron Emission Tomography:
Measures consumption of glucose-like molecules yielding a picture of neural activity in different regions of the brain
5
Q
What is a functional MRI?
A
Used magnetic fields to visualize brain activity using changes in blood oxygen level
6
Q
What is a MEG?
A
Magnetoencephalography:
Measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain
7
Q
What is TMS?
A
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation:
Applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull that can enhance or interrupt brain function
8
Q
What is DBS?
A
Deep Brain Stimulation:
Uses electrodes and a battery source implanted in the brain to deliver electricity to specific brain areas
9
Q
What is a neuron?
A
Nerve cell specialized for communication
Brains contain 86 billion neurons (+/-) a few billion
10
Q
Cell Body
A
Cell body aka soma is the central region of the neuron. Serious damage to this part of the neuron is fatal due to the nucleus being there
11
Q
What is a Dendrite?
A
Portion of the neuron that receives signals and has multiple branch like extensions for receiving info from other neurons. Spread out to “listen in” and pass them onto the cell body. Cell phone receiver
12
Q
What is an axon?
A
Portion of the neuron that sends signals, like a cell phone transmitter. Tail like extensions can be 200,000 times as long as the dendrites branches. Easily activated by incoming signals
13
Q
What is a Synaptic Vesicle?
A
Spherical sac containing neurotransmitters
14
Q
What is a neurotransmitter?
A
Chemical messenger specialized for communication from neuron to neuron
15
Q
What is a Synapse?
A
Space b/w two connecting neurons through which messages are transmitted chemically
16
Q
What is a Synaptic Cleft?
A
A gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal
17
Q
What is a Glial Cell?
A
Cell in the nervous system that plays a role in formation of myelin and the blood-brain-barrier. Responds to injury, removes debris and facilitates communication among neurons and enhances memory and learning
-clear away debris (brains garbage disposal)
18
Q
Astrocytes
A
Shaped like stars (hence astrology) are the most abundant glial cells. The communicate closely with neurons to increase accuracy of transmission (help control blood flow in the brain) involved in thought, memory and the immune system
19
Q
Oligodendrocyte
A
Glial cell that promotes new connections among nerve cells and release chemicals to aid in healing
20
Q
What is a Myelin Sheath?
A
Glial cells wrapped around axons that act as insulators of the neuron’s signal
MS myelin sheaths surrounding neurons are progressively eaten away resulting in loss of insulation of neural messages
21
Q
Blood-Brain Barrier
A
BBB:
Protective shield of blood vessels that insulates the brain from infection by bacteria. Brains security system
22
Q
What is a Resting Potential?
A
Electrical charge difference (-60 volts) across the neuronal membrane when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited?
23
Q
What is Threshold of Excitation?
A
Membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential
24
Q
What is an Action potential?
A
Electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of the neurotransmitters. All or none.
25
Neurotransmitters
When action potential reaches the axon terminal it triggers the release of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) into the synapse
-neurotransmitters like a key that unlocks only by it's own type of receptor
-some excite (increase activity) others inhibit (decreasing activity)
26
What is the Absolute Refractory Period?
Time when another action potential is impossible, limits the firing state
27
What is a Receptor Site?
Location that uniquely recognizes a neurotransmitter
28
What is Reuptake?
Means of recycling neurotransmitters
29
What is an Endorphin?
Chemical in the brain that plays a specialized role in pain reduction
30
What is Plasticity?
Ability of the nervous system to change
31
What is Neurogenesis?
Creation of new neurons in the adult brain
32
What is a Stem Cell?
A cell usually originating in embryos. Capacity to differentiate into a more specialized cell
33
What is the CNS?
Central Nervous System:
Contains the brain and spinal cord which controls the mind and behavior
34
What is the PNS?
Peripheral Nervous System:
Nerves in the body outside of the CNS
35
What are the Cerebral Ventricles?
Pockets in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid, which provides the brain with nutrients and cushions from injury
36
Cerebral Cortex?
Outermost part of the forebrain, responsible for analyzing sensory info and higher brain functions
37
Cerebrum?
Forebrain:
Top part of the brain that allows advances intellectual abilities
38
Cerebral Hemispheres?
Two halves of the Cerebral Cortex, each serves a distinct integrated function
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Corpus Callosum?
Large band of fiber's connecting the two Cerebral hemispheres
40
Lateralization?
Cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other
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Split-Brain Surgery?
Procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures
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Frontal Lobe?
Forward part of the cerebral cortex responsible for motor function, language, decision making and planning
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Motor Cortex?
Part of the frontal lobe responsible for body movement
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Prefrontal Cortex?
Part of the frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning and language
45
Broca's Area?
Language area in the prefrontal cortex that helps control speech production
46
Parietal Lobe?
Upper middle part of the cerebral cortex lying behind the frontal lobe specialized for touch and perception
47
Temporal Lobe?
Lower part of the cerebral cortex that plays a role in hearing, understanding language and memory
48
Wernicke's Area?
Part of the temporal lobe involved in understanding speech and language
49
Occipital Lobe?
Back part of the cerebral cortex specialized for vision
50
Primary Sensory Cortex?
Regions of the cerebral cortex that initially process info from the senses
51
Association Cortex?
Regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate simpler functions to perform more complex functions
52
Basal Ganglia?
Structures in the forebrain that help control movement
53
Limbic System?
A network of regions involved in emotion, motivation, learning and memory
54
Thalamus?
Gateway from the sense organs to the primary sensory cortex
55
Hypothalamus?
Part of the brain responsible for maintaining a constant internal state
56
Amygdala?
Part of the limbic system that modulates attention, perception and memory based on our emotions
57
Hippocampus?
Part of the brain that plays a role in spatial memory
58
Cerebellum?
Brain structure responsible for our sense of balance
59
Brain Stem?
Part of the brain b/w the spinal cord and cerebral cortex that contains the midbrain, pons and medulla
60
Midbrain?
Part of the brain stem that contributes to movement, tracking visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound
61
RAS?
Reticular Activating System:
Brain area that plays a role in arousal
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Hindbrain?
Region below the midbrain that contains the cerebellum, pons and medulla
63
Pons?
Part of the brain stem that connects the cortex with the cerebellum
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Medulla?
Part of the brain stem involved in basic functions like heartbeat and breathing
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Spinal Cord?
Thick bundle of nerves that convey signals b/w the brain and body
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Interneuron?
Neuron that sends messages to other nearby neurons
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Reflex?
Automatic motor response to a sensory stimulus
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Somatic Nervous System?
Part of the N.S. that conveys info b/w the CNS and the body. Controls and coordinates voluntary movement
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Autonomic Nervous System?
ANS: Part of the N.S controlling involuntary actions of our internal organs and glands that participate in emotion regulation
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Sympathetic Nervous System?
Division of ANS engaged during a crisis of after actions requiring flight or flight
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Parasympathetic Nervous System?
PNS: Division of ANS that controls rest and digestion
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Endocrine System?
System of glands and hormones that controls secretion of blood-borne chemical messengers
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Hormone?
Chemical released into the bloodstream that influences particular organs and glands
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Pituitary Gland?
Master gland under the control of the hypothalamus directs other glands of the body
75
Adrenal Gland?
Tissue located on top of the kidneys and releases adrenaline and cortisol during states of emotional arousal
76
Chromosome?
Slender thread inside a cell's nucleus that carries genes
77
Gene?
Genetic material composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
78
Genotype?
Our genetic makeup
79
Phenotype?
Our observable traits
80
Dominant Gene?
Gene that masks other genes' effects
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Recessive Gene?
Gene that is expressed only in the absence of a dominant gene
82
Fitness?
Organisms' capacity to pass on their genes
83
Heritability?
Percentage of the variability in a trait across individuals that is the result of genes
84
Family Study?
Analysis of how characteristics run in intact families
85
Twin Study?
Analysis of how traits differ in monozygotic (generally identical) vs dizygotic twins
86
Adoption Study?
Analysis of how traits vary in individuals raised apart from their biological relatives
87
Epigenetics?
A field that examines how environmental influences affect the expression of genes
88
Trephination?
-Evidence as far back as 6500 B.C.
-Cutting, scraping, chiseling, drilling
-Relieve pressure, bleeding
-Survivors of multiple operations
-Thousands of skulls found
-Cure for ‘evil spirits’ speculative
89
Aristotle
Aristotle argued the heart is the source of blood and so, as blood was thought to carry heat, the heart must be the source of heat.
-Felt that the source of heat must also be the source of 'the sensory soul’.
-Other organs such as the lungs and brain, existed simply to cool and cushion the heart
90
Phrenology
-Explores shape, size and protrusions of the cranium
-Brain is the sole organ of the mind
-Character traits and intelligence are inherited
-Differences b/w people must also be structural brain differences b/w them
91
Gall & Spurzheim’s Method of Phrenology
-The more developed a function, the bigger the protrusion on the skull
-Examining these protrusions, we can determine someone’s strengths and weakness
92
Psychoactive Drugs/ Agonists
Agonists:
drug enhances activity at the receptor site and either binds to receptor site or blocks reuptake of neurotransmitters
-Opiates such as codeine or morphine increase or mimic the effect of a neurotransmitter
93
Psychoactive Drugs/ Antagonists
Antagonists
drug reduces activity at the receptor site
binds to receptor site and blocks neurotransmitters
-act as a fake neurotransmitter, fooling receptors into thinking they are it
-ex Botox as the Botulinum toxin
94
Brain Injuries in Humans Broca’s Aphasia
Broca’s Aphasia:
1824 - 1880
inability to express ideas through speaking caused by damage to the inferior frontal regions of the brain
95
Famous brain injury case: Clive Wearing
Musician
-Contracted herpes encephalitis in 1985
-Attacked his brain, damaging the hippocampus, temporal and a bit of his frontal lobes.
-Can’t encode new memories (anterograde amnesia)
96
Famous brain injury case: Phineas Gage
Phineas Gage (1848) 25 years old
-Iron rod damaged most of his left frontal lobe and resulted in severe personality changes and possible attention deficits
97
Problems with Brain Injury and Research
-Injuries happen in a variety of ways and rarely damage only one region of the brain
-Hard to replicate the brain damaged areas in other patients
-Usually more investigation is necessary to conclude any connection between brain damage and brain function
98
Not-so-invasive Methods
-EEG
-fMRI
-PET
-TMS
99
(EEG) recording
-Uses electrodes on the scalp pick up the electrical current being conducted through the skull by the activity of neurons
-Great temporal resolution (milliseconds)
-Bad spatial resolution
-“Cheap” – about $70K
100
Event-Related Potentials
-ERPs are measured as waveforms
-time-locked to a specific event in the environment (e.g., picture of a face)
-Many trials are averaged together to get clear evoked-potentials
101
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
-Measures brain activity indirectly through tracing the amount of blood flow to specific areas of the brain (BOLD)
-Very expensive
-Great spatial resolution but poor temporal
-Non-invasive -Widely used
-As different brain areas become active an increase in oxygenated blood level to those regions
102
MRI – Structural Differences
London Taxi Drivers/ Bus Drivers
-Found that taxi drivers had more grey matter (cell bodies) in the hippocampus (memory) for spatial knowledge than bus drivers
-Years of navigation correlated with the increase in grey matter
103
Brain Connectivity:
Tensor Diffusion Imaging
Tensor Diffusion Imaging (mid 1980’s)
MRI that measures the diffusion properties of water molecules
(measures axons)
104
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
PET:
-More precise in localizing brain areas
-Used radioactive substances ingested to trace the brain activity (glucose)
-Less precise temporally
-Great localization
-Expensive
-Invasive
-Not very common
105
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
MEG:
-Measures tiny magnetic fields in the brain and nervous system
-Good spatial localization
-Excellent temporal resolution
-Extremely expensive
-Non-invasive
-Not very common
106
Deep Brain Stimulation
DBS:
Electrodes and a battery source are implanted in the brain to deliver electricity to specific brain area
-Wilbur Penfield 1958 discovered depending on where he stimulated the brain it produced highly specific responses (ex movements or vivid recall)
-Neuroscientists investigating use of DBS in treating tremors associated with Parkinson's Disease, OCD, depression, epilepsy and dementia
107
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
TMS:
-Excites neurons in the brain using electric currents induced by rapidly changing magnetic fields
-Can only be used for brain area near the surface of the scalp
-Can cause seizures if used incorrectly
-Can be used to infer causality
108
Split Brain Research
-language is primarily controlled by the left hemisphere, patients could not verbally identify images in their left visual field
109
How we study heritability
-Behavioral genetic designs estimating heritability
-Family Studies
-Twin Studies
-Monozygotic (identical) vs. dizygotic (fraternal)
-Adoption Studies
-Potential confound: selective placement
-Genetic markers of disease - examine DNA to forecast expression of an illness (e.g., early-onset Alzheimer’s Disease)
110
Default Mode Network (DMN)
-fMRI Researchers told Pt's to "rest" and noticed large swaths of their brains were active
-Scientists named these regions associated with spontaneous thoughts, daydreaming and mindwandering the Default Mode Network (DMN)
111
Misunderstandings/ concerns of brain scans
Many believe functional brain images like PET or fMRI (colored images) are essentially photographs of the brain in action. **They aren't**
-many cases produced by subtracting brain activity on a "control" task from brain activity on an "experimental" task that is a primary interest of the researchers
-risk of chance findings -hard to replicate in later studies
-as functional as brain images are must be careful not to assume they can read minds or provide any hidden info traditional psychological tests can't
-nonexperts may be more likely to accept bogus claims when accompanied by brain imaging findings
-participants were more likely to confuse correlation with causation (dangers of "neuro-seduction")
112
10% myth
Gained traction in the late 1800's
-William James one of the founders of psychology wrote most people fulfill only a small percentage of their intellectual potential
-Some mis-constructed that as we only use about 10% of our brain and later acquired status of an urban legend
-in 1929 Karl Lashley fueled this by saying there was no single memory area in the brain (knife cuts in brains of rats and tested them in mazes finding no specific cortical area was more critical to maze learning than others) but he wasn't looking far enough below the surface of the cortex
-popular culture misquoted scientists as saying 90% of the brain isn't doing anything and psychics have hinted it has to be doing something (like ESP)
-final blow to the 10% myth came from neuroimaging and brain stimulation studies
113
Evil Spot
Popular media implies that complex psychological capabilities such as jealousy, can be localized to one brain region. Neuroscientists now believe that most are spread out across multiple brain regions
114
Glutamate and Gaba
-Glutamate and Gaba most common neurotransmitters in the CNS.
-Glutamate rapidly excites neurons, increasing odds they'll talk with other neurons. Release enhances learning and memory. If abnormally elevated may contribute to Schizophrenia or other mental disorders b/c high doses can be toxic.
-Gaba in contrast, inhibits neurons (dampens neural activity). Most anti-anxiety drugs bind to GABA receptors (tend to suppress overactive brain areas linked with worry and unwanted thoughts) Critical role in learning, memory and sleep.
115
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine:
-role in arousal, selective attention, memory and sleep
-Alzheimer's D neurons containing this and several other neurotransmitters are gradually destroyed (memory loss).
-insecticides limit breakdown of Acetylcholine causing insects to engage in violent, uncontrolled movements that kill them
116
Monoamines
Norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin are the Monoamine neurotransmitters (contain only one amino acid, building block of proteins).
-dopamine critical role in motivation and rewarding experiences (seek/ anticipate goals sex, food, gambling, ect)
-Norepinephrine and serotonin activate/ or deactivate various parts of the brain, influences consciousness, arousal, movements and readiness to respond to stimuli
117
Anandamide
-Cells in our bodies incl neurons manufacture Anandamide which bind the same receptors as marijuana's active ingredient THC. It plays a role in eating, motivation, memory and sleep (may explain the munchies and sleepiness)
118
Neuropeptides
Neuropeptides are short strings of amino acids in the NS. Act like neurotransmitters, but tend to be more narrowly specialized in their jobs.
-Endorphins are a type that help as pain relievers
-human made opioids like Morphine hijack the endorphin system binding to its receptors mimicking its effects
-some Neuropeptides regulate hunger and fullness, others can alter learning and memory
119
Neural Plasticity over Development
-typically the brain is most flexible during early development when N.S. is not set in stone
-don't fully mature into late adolescence or early adulthood
-adaptability is our superpower, can figure out how to survive in almost all environments
-to be adaptable babies need to be born without too many set patterns
-Network of neurons in the brain changes over the course of development in four ways
a) Growth of dendrites and axons
b) Synaptogenesis the formation of new synapses
c) Pruning consisting of death of certain neurons and the retraction of axons to remove connections that aren't useful (as many as 70% of all neurons die off)
d) Myelination the insulation of axons with a myelin sheath
120
Neural Plasticity and Learning
-brains change as we learn
-formation of new synapses, strengthening of existing synaptic connections (Potentiation)
121
Neural Plasticity following Injury and Degeneration
-brain and spinal cord display limited regeneration following injury or serious illness
-certain brain regions sometimes take over functions performed by others
122
Embryonic Stem Cell research
-controversial for ethical reasons
-advocates champion its potential for treating serious disease
-opponents say such research requires investigators to create and then extract lab created balls of cells 4/ 5 days old
-stem cell research these cells are an early form of human life
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