Ch. 3 Textbook Notes Flashcards
Define model. What is another word for model?
The perspectives used to explain events, also known as paradigms. Each model spells out the scientist’s basic assumptions, gives order to the field under study, and sets guidelines for its investigation.
What are neurons, synapses, neurotransmitters, and receptors?
Neuron: a nerve cell.
Synapse: the tiny space between the nerve ending of one neuron and the dendrite of another.
Neurotransmitter: a chemical that, released by one neuron, crosses the synaptic space to be received at receptors on the dendrites of neighboring neurons. Some neurotransmitters carry inhibitory messages which tell receiving neurons to stop firing, while others give them the message to begin firing.
Receptors: a site on a neuron that receives a neurotransmitter.
What is the biological model? What are its assumptions?
Definition: a model that sees physical processes as key to human behavior. A full understanding of a person’s thoughts, emotions, and behavior include an understanding of their biological basis. Thus, treatment is biologically-based.
Why do people suffer from abnormalities?
- they have illnesses brought about due to malfunctioning parts in the brain
- abnormal activity by certain neurotransmitters (ex: correlation of depression to low serotonin activity)
- abnormal activity in the endocrine system (where hormones are released; ex: abnormal releases of cortisol has been tied to anxiety).
Abnormal Brain Circuitry:
- the Fear Circuit
- interconnecting fiber pathways enable structures to trigger each other into action, producing fear
- improper functioning can cause anxiety disorders
Why do people suffer from biological abnormalities? (Hint: two main factors in the biological model)
1) Genetics
- definition: segments that control the characteristics and traits a person inherits
- each cell contains 20,000 genes
- can make some people more prone to certain mental disorders
2) Evolution
- reactions/genes have survived over time because they have helped individuals survive and adapt
- ex: fight or flight
What are some treatments advocated for under the biological model?
A) Psychotropic medications:
- affect emotions/thought processes
- used alone or in addition to therapy/CBT
- they do not help everyone
- 4 Kinds (antianxiety or minor tranquilizers, antidepressants, antibipolar or mood stabilizers, and antipsychotic which help reduces hallucinations and delusions associated with psychosis)
B) Brain stimulation:
- interventions that directly or indirectly stimulate certain areas of the brain
- Ex: Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), which is a stimulated brain seizure
C) Psychosurgery
- Bad example: lobotomies (cutting connections between the frontal lobes and lower regions of the brain)
- Good example: Deep brain stimulation, where electrodes are implanted in areas of a person’s brain and connected to a battery in the chest (sends a steady stream of electricity).
What is the Psychodynamic Model? Definition and assumptions?
Definition: the oldest model. Claims that a person’s behavior is determined largely by underlying psychological forces of which the individual is not consciously aware. These internal forces are described as dynamic in that they interact with one another, which gives rise to thoughts and emotions.
What causes abnormality?
- conflict between the internal forces.
- early relationships and traumatic experiences during early childhood.
Assumptions:
- no symptom or behavior is accidental, and all behavior is determined by past experiences
According to Freud and the Psychodynamic Model, what three central forces shape personality?
Note: all three operate at the unconscious level
1) the Id
- instinctual needs, drives, and impulses
- pleasure principle, always seeks gratification
- all id instincts are sexual
2) the Ego
- rational thinking
- the reality principle, or the knowledge we acquire through experience that leads us to repress the impulses of the Id
- when we can express our desires and when we can’t
- Ego Defense Mechanisms; controlling unacceptable id impulses and avoid/reduce the anxiety they arouse (otherwise known as repression)
3) the Superego
- moral standards
- morality principle, or a sense of what is right and wrong
- unconscious adoption of ideals and values
Besides Freud, what are some other Psychodynamic theories?
A) Self-theory
- emphasizes the role of self, or the unified personality
- basic human motive is to strengthen the wholeness of the self
B) Object Relations theory
- people are motivated mainly by a need to have relationships with others
- severe problems between caregivers and children may lead to abnormal development
What are some Psychodynamic methods of treatment?
Therapy, with several different techniques…
1) Free association
- in which the patient describes any thought, feeling, or image that comes to mind, even if it seems unimportant
2) Therapist interpretation
- interpretations of three types of phenomena are important (resistance, transference, and dreams)
3) Catharsis
- the reliving of the past repressed feelings in order to settle internal conflicts and overcome problems
4) Working through
- in which both patient and therapist examine the same issues over and over again with increasing clarity
What are some problems with the Psychodynamic Model?
- hard to research (id, ego, superego) and study
- notions are too abstract
- evidence mostly rooted in individual case studies
What is the Cognitive-Behavioral Model? Definition and assumptions?
Definition: a model that focuses on the behaviors people display and the thoughts they have.
- interested in the connection between behaviors and thoughts, and the impact that relationship has on feelings/emotions
What causes abnormality?
- conditioning (environmental), as well as cognitive processes such as anticipating or interpreting
- counterproductive behaviors and dysfunctional ways of thinking
The Behavioral Dimension:
- operant conditioning (ex: adult displaying aggressive behavior because such behavior was rewarded in childhood).
- classical conditioning (ex: phobias).
The Cognitive Dimension:
- assumptions we make, attitudes we adopt, our interpretations
- illogical thinking processes such as overgeneralization
Methods of Treatment:
- exposure therapy
- acceptance and commitment therapy (a type of New Wave CBT), which helps clients accept many of their problematic thoughts rather than judge them or act on them (recognizing thoughts as just thoughts)
- mindfulness-based techniques, such as meditation
What is classical versus operant conditioning?
Classical: a process of learning by temporal association in which two events that repeatedly occur close together in time become fused in a person’s mind and produce the same response.
Operant: a process of learning in which individuals come to behave in certain ways as a result of experiencing consequences of one kind or another whenever they perform the behavior.
What is the Humanistic-Existential Model? Definition and assumptions? What are the differences between Humanists and Existentialists?
Definition: focus on the broader dimensions of human existence. There are differences between Humanists and Existentialists.
Humanists:
- human beings are born with an intrinsic goodness
- driven to self-actualize or fulfill their potential for goodness and growth (can only do this if they accept both their weaknesses and their strengths)
- establishment of personal values
Existentialists:
- like Humanists, believe that people understand themselves well and live meaningful or authentic lives to be psychologically well-adjusted
- from birth we have a choice to live up to our potential or shrink from responsibilities
- dysfunction stems from the choice to do the latter
What is Carl Rogers’ Humanistic Theory? What methods of treatments does it promote?
Rogers’ Humanistic Theory:
- dysfunction begins in infancy
- unconditional positive regard in childhood = unconditional self-regard in adulthood
- not worthy of positive regard in childhood = conditions of worth in adulthood, or standards that equate to love-ability when met
- dysfunctional positive self-regard is met when denial or a distortion of thoughts/behaviors takes place
- inauthenticity leads to dysfunction
Treatments:
- Client-centered therapy, with 3 important qualities
1) unconditional positive regard (warm acceptance)
2) accurate empathy (listening and restating)
3) genuineness (sincere communication)
- clients are expected to feel accepted and understood by their therapists
What is Gestalt Theory? (hint: it is a type of Humanistic approach)
Definition: guide clients toward self-recognition and self-acceptance.
- a push to embrace real emotions
Treatments:
- Role playing
