ch 40 overview: diverse forms, common challenges Flashcards
1
Q
anatomy
A
the study of the biological form of an organism
2
Q
physiology
A
the study of the biological functions an organism performs
3
Q
what has the comparative study of animals revealed?
A
the comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are closely correlated
4
Q
what affects an animal interaction with its environment?
A
size and shape affect the way an animal interacts with its environment
5
Q
in animals, what is determined by the genome?
A
many different animal body plans have evolved and are determined by the genome
6
Q
what do physical laws constrain?
A
physical laws constrain strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange
7
Q
what needs to happen when animals increase in size?
A
as animal increase in size, their skeletons must be proportionately larger to support their mass
8
Q
what does evolutionary convergence reflect?
A
evolutionary convergence reflects different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge
9
Q
what materials must be exchanges across the cell membranes of animal cells?
A
materials such as nutrients, waste products, and gases must be exchanged across the cell membranes of animal cells
10
Q
what is the rate of exchange proportional to?
A
rate of exchange is proportional to a cell’s surface area while the amount of exchange material is proportional to a cell’s volume
11
Q
true or false: a single-celled protist living in water has a sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to service its entire volume of cytoplasm
A
true
12
Q
how thick are the body walls of mutlicellular organisms?
A
multicellular organisms with a saclike body plan have body walls that are only two cells thick, facilitating diffusion of materials.
13
Q
in flat animals such as tapeworms, how large is the distance between cells?
A
in flat animals such as tapeworms, the distance between cells and the environment is minimized
14
Q
what do more complex organisms have?
A
more complex organisms have highly folded internal surfaces for exchanging materials.
15
Q
interstitial fluid
A
allows for the movement of material into and out of cells
16
Q
in vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with what?
A
interstitial fluid
17
Q
how is having a complex body plan beneficial to an animal living in a variable environment?
A
a complex body plan helps an animal living in a variable environment to maintain a relatively stable internal environment
18
Q
what are most animals composed of?
A
most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into tissues that have different functions
19
Q
what do tissues make up?
A
tissues make up organs, which together make up organ systems
20
Q
do organs belong to more than one organ system?
A
some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to more than one organ system
21
Q
what are the main components of the digestive system?
A
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
22
Q
what are the main functions of the digestive system?
A
food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
23
Q
what are the main components of the circulatory system?
A
heart, blood vessels, blood
24
Q
what are the main functions of the circulatory system?
A
internal distribution of materials
25
what are the main components of the respiratory system?
lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes
26
what are the main functions of the respiratory system?
gas exchange (uptake of oxygen; disposal of carbon dioxide)
27
what are the main components of the immune and lymphatic system?
bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen,lymph vessels, white blood cells
28
what are the main functions of the immune and lymphatic systems?
body defense (fighting infections and cancer)
29
what are the main components of the excretory system?
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
30
what are the main functions of the excretory system?
disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood
31
what are the main components of the endocrine system?
pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone-secreting glands
32
what are the main functiosn of the endocrine system?
coordination of body activities (such as digestion and metabolism)
33
what are the main components of the reproductive system?
ovaries or testes and associated organs
34
what are the main functions of the reproductive system?
reproduction
35
what are the main components of the nervous system?
brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs.
36
what are the main functions of the nervous system?
coordination of body activities;detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them
37
what are the main components of the integumentary system?
skin and its derivatives (such as hair, claws, skin glands)
38
what are the main functions of the integumentary system?
protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration; thermoregulation
39
what are the main components of the skeletal system?
skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)
40
what are the main functions of the skeletal system?
body support, protection of internal organs, movement
41
what are the main components of the muscular system?
skeletal muscles
42
what are the main functions of the muscular system?
locomotion and other movement
43
tissues are classified into what four main categories?
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
44
epithelial tissue
covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body
-it contains cells that are closely joined
45
what are the shapes of epithelial cells?
the shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice), columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles)
46
how can epithelial cells be arranged?
the arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple (single cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length).
47
cuboidal epithelium
dice shaped cells specialized for secretion makes up the epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands, including the thyroid gland and salivary glands
48
stratified squamous epithelium
multilayered and regenerates rapidly. commonly found on surfaces subject to abrasion, such as the outer skin and the linings of the mouth, anus, and vagina
49
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
a single layer of cells varying in height in vertebrates epithelium or cillated cells forms a mucous membrane that lines portions of the respiratory tract. the beating cilla sweep the film of mucous along the surface
50
simple squamous epithelium
the single layer of platelike cells function in the exchange of materials by diffusion. lines blood vessels and the air sacs of the lungs, where diffusion of nutrients and gases is critical
51
simple columnar epithelium
large, brick shaped are often found where secretion or active absorption are important, the secrete digestive juices and absorbing nutrients
52
connective tissue
mainly binds and supports other tissues
53
what do connective tissues contain?
connective tissues contain sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix
54
what does the matrix of a connective tissue consist of?
the matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation
55
what are the three types of connective tissue fiber? (all made of protein)
- collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility
- elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their original length
- reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
56
what cells do connective tissues have?
fibroblasts and macrophages
57
fibroblasts
secrete the protein of extracellular fibers
58
macrophages
they are involved in the immune system
59
in vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form what six major types of connective tissue?
- loose connective tissue
- fibrous connective tissue
- adipose tissue
- blood
- bone
- muscle tissue
60
loose connective tissue
binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
61
cartilage
strong and flexible support material
62
tendons
attach muscles to bones
63
ligaments
connect bones at joints
64
adipose tissue
stores fat for insulation and fuel
65
blood
is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
66
bone
mineralized and forms the skeleton
67
muscle tissue
consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals
68
muscle tissue is divided in the vertebrate body into what three types?
- skeletal muscle
- smooth muscle
- cardiac muscle
69
skeletal muscle
also called striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement
70
smooth muscle
is responsible for involuntary body activities
71
cardiac muscle
is responsible for contraction of the heart
72
nervous tissue
senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
73
what does nervous tissue contain?
- neurons (nerve cells)
- glial cells (glia)
74
neurons (nerve cells)
transmit nerve impulses
75
glial cells (glia)
help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
76
what does control and coordination within a body depend on?
control and coordination within a body depend on the endocrine system and the nervous system
77
hormones
chemical signals transmitted by the endocrine system
78
where does the endocrine system transmit hormones? and how are these hormones transimitted?
the endocrine system transmits hormones to receptive cells throughout the body via blood
79
true or false: a hormone may affect one or more regions throughout the body
true
80
true or false: hormones are relatively slow acting, but do not have long-lasting effects
false, hormones are relatively slow acting, but they can have long-lasting effects
81
how are nerve impulses received?
nerve impulses can be received by neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells
82
true or false: nerve signal transmission is very slow
false, it is very fast
83
how is the information from the nervous system conveyed?
the information conveyed depends on a signal's pathway, not the type of signal
84
how does the nervous system transmit information?
the nervous system transmits information between specific locations
85
how do animals manage their internal environment?
animals manage their internal environment by regulating or conforming to the external environment
86
regulator
uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external, environmental fluctuation
87
conformer
allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes
88
true or false: animals may regulate some environmental variables while conforming to others
true
89
homeostasis
helps organisms maintain a "steady state" or internal balance regardless of external environment
90
what in humans is maintained at a constant level?
in humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration are each maintained at a constant level
91
what moderates changes in the internal environment?
mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the internal environment
92
what serves as a stimulus for a given variable?
for a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response
-the response returns the variable to the set point
93
what is maintained by negative feedback?
the dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback
94
negative feedback
helps to return a variable to a normal range
95
how do most homeostatic control systems function?
most homeostatic control systems function by negative feedback, where buildup of the end product shuts the system off
96
positive feedback
amplifies a stimulus and does not usually contribute to homeostasis in animals
97
how can set points and normal ranges change?
set points and normal ranges can change with age or show cyclic variation
98
circadian rhythm
governs physiologican changes that occur roughly every 24 hours in animals and plants
99
acclimatization
a process where homeostasis can adjust to changes in external environment
100
thermoregulation
the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range
101
endothermic
animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms
102
ectothermic animals
gain heat from external sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles
103
how do ectotherms and endotherms differ?
in general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, while endotherms are active at a greater range of external temperatures
104
true or false: endothermy is more energetically expensive than ectothermy
true
105
what changes the body temperature of a poikilotherm?
the body temperature of a poikilotherm varies with its environment
106
does the body temperature of a homeotherm change?
the body temperature of a homeotherm is relatively constant
107
true or false: The relationship between heat source and body temperature is not fixed
true, the relationship between heat source and body temperature is not fixed (that is, not all poikilotherms are ectotherms)
108
Organisms exchange heat by what four physical processes?
radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction
109
what does heat regulation in mammals involve?
the integumentary system; skin, hair, nails
110
what five adaptations help animals thermoregulate?
- Insulation
- Circulatory adaptations
- Cooling by evaporative heat loss
- Behavioral responses
- Adjusting metabolic heat production
111
what is insulation?
Insulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and birds
112
what reduces heat flow between an animal and its environment?
Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber
113
in what animals is insulation important?
Insulation is especially important in marine mammals such as whales and walruses
114
what affects thermoregulation?
Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation
115
what can alter the amount of blood flowing between the body core and the skin?
Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter the amount of blood flowing between the body core and the skin
116
what happens during vasodilation?
In vasodilation, blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss
117
what happens in vasoconstriction?
In vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss
118
what allows countercurrent exchange to happen?
The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals and birds allows for countercurrent exchange
119
what do countercurrent heat exchangers transfer?
Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions and reduce heat loss
120
what sea creatures use countercurrent heat exchanges?
Some bony fishes and sharks also use countercurrent heat exchanges
121
do insects have countercurrent heat exchangers?
Many endothermic insects have countercurrent heat exchangers that help maintain a high temperature in the thorax
122
how do animals lose heat?
Many types of animals lose heat through evaporation of water from their skin
123
what increases the cooling effect in birds and many mammals?
Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and many mammals
124
what helps an animal cool down?
Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to cool an animal down
125
what two things use behavioral responses to control body temperature?
Both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral responses to control body temperature
126
terrestrial invertebrates have postures that cause what to happen?
Some terrestrial invertebrates have postures that minimize or maximize absorption of solar heat
127
thermogenesis
the adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature
128
how is thermogenesis increased?
Thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity such as moving or shivering
129
what causes nonshivering thermogenesis?
Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place when hormones cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity
130
true or false: Some ectotherms can also shiver to increase body temperature
true
131
what causes ectotherms to produce “antifreeze” compounds?
When temperatures are subzero, some ectotherms produce “antifreeze” compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells
132
why do birds and mammals vary their insulation?
Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes
133
Thermoregulation is controlled by what region of the brain?
hypothalamus
134
what does the hypothalamus trigger?
The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat generating mechanisms
135
true or false: Fever is the result of a change to the set point for a biological thermostat
true
136
bioenergetics
the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
137
what does bioenergetics determine?
It determines how much food an animal needs and it relates to an animal’s size, activity, and environment
138
what do animals harvest?
Animals harvest chemical energy from food
139
what do energy-containing molecules from food make?
Energy-containing molecules from food are usually used to make ATP, which powers cellular work
140
what does biosynthesis include?
Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat, and production of gametes
141
what has to happen so that food molecules can be used in biosynthesis?
After the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food molecules can be used in biosynthesis
142
metabolic rate
the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
143
how is metabolic rate determined?
- An animal’s heat loss
- The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced
144
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature
145
Standard metabolic rate (SMR)
the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature
146
what do both the Basal metabolic rate and the Standard metabolic rate assume?
Both rates assume a nongrowing, fasting, and nonstressed animal
147
true or false: Endotherms have much lower metabolic rates than ectotherms of a comparable size
false, Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size
148
what two factors affect metabolic rate?
- Metabolic rates are affected by many factors besides whether an animal is an endotherm or ectotherm
- size and activity
149
what is the metabolic rate proportional to?
Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power of three quarters (m3/4)
150
what is a difference between smaller animals and larger animals?
Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per gram than larger animals
151
what does a higher metabolic rate of smaller animals lead to?
The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and greater (relative) blood volume, compared with a larger animal
152
what does activity affect in endotherms and ectoderms?
Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for endotherms and ectotherms
153
what is the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain?
In general, the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain is inversely related to the duration of the activity
154
what is the use of energy partitioned to?
Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or SMR), activity, thermoregulation, growth, and reproduction
155
what do different species use?
Different species use energy and materials in food in different ways, depending on their environment
156
torpor
a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases
157
what does torpor enable animals to do?
Torpor enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions
158
hibernation
long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
159
estivation
summer torpor, enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water
160
daily torpor
is exhibited by many small mammals and birds and seems adapted to feeding patterns
161
