Ch. 6-12

Question 1

Opportunities of Internet Research

Answer 1

Compared to other modes of collecting data is:

1. Less expensive
2. Easier to conduct

Question 2

How does internet research work?

Answer 2

• Post ad on specialized website, ie. Social Psych Network or American Psychological Society
• Send email to online community (ie. Listserve)

Question 3

Opportunities of internet research:
Decreasing the costs

Answer 3

Decrease the Costs

• of recruiting large, diverse, or specialized samples of research subjects
• Ie. Nosek et al. (2002) collected over 2.5 million responses on IAT in 5 years

Question 4

Internet Research: Easier to Conduct

Answer 4

• No longer need access into intro psych courses
• Do NOT need grant money to pay subjects
• Demographic data collection – researchers at small schools or independent research
• Avoidance of time constraints
• Round the clock data collection!
• Avoidance of organizational difficulties such as scheduling because thousands can participate at once

Question 5

Easier to Conduct: Observing Social Behavior

Answer 5

• Study on-line groups to understand group formation and change
• Conversations are pre-transcribed
• There are automated coding and content-analysis tools

Examples:

• Baym (1998): studied way groups develop sense of community by examining an email distribution list about soap operas over several years
• Bruckmann (1999): studied influence of groups on long-term learning by examining online conservations of 475 children learning a programming language over 5 years

Question 6

Easier to conduct: Access to Archival Data

Answer 6

• Detailed transaction logs that people leave when using the internet can be used for studies of preference and choice
• Ie. Browsing behavior, software use, purchasing behavior, file uploads and downloads, subscription to communication forums

Question 7

Easier to conduct: Automated

Answer 7

• Low marginal cost of each additional subject, close to zero!
• COMPARE TO: postal mail surveys may cost close to $2 per subject; telephone surveys cost about $40-100 per subject

Question 8

Easier to conduct: Experimental Control

Answer 8

• COMPARED TO paper based surveys: web surveys are flexible
• Less error prone (b/c don’t require human transcription – no data entry)
• Reduction in experimenter effects
• Reduction in demand characteristics

Question 9

Challenges of Internet Research: Data Quality

Answer 9

• Sample biases
  
  • To whom does web-based research generalize?
  • Good external validity new for social psych who often use colleges students
  • But internet users tend to be White, young and have children
• Lower response rates than telephone & paper surveys
• Dropouts: esp. for longitudinal data b/c ppl frequently change email addresses
• Possible multiple submissions by SAME person
• Anonymous nature allows people to participate frivolously or with malicious intent

Question 10

Challenges of Internet Research:
Lack of Control over Data Collection Setting

Answer 10

In Lab we can:

• Verify subjects’ identities, age or gender
• Monitor behavior to ensure that they’re involved & serious
• Intervene if perceive undesirable effects

Question 11

How to do deal with malicious responses

Answer 11

• May require LARGER samples to compensate for great error rate
• But can set up identifiers for invited subjects and do systematic data mining for anomalous data patterns

Question 12

Challenges of Internet Research:

Protection of Human Subjects

Answer 12

• NOT riskier than research through other means
• But, online research changes the nature of risks and investigator’s ability to assess them

Question 13

Ambiguities of Internet Research

Answer 13

• Is the subject identifiable or anonymous?
  
  • even pseudonyms can be linked to real names & responses can be tracked to individuals
• Breach of confidentiality (GREATEST RISK)
• Do we need consent for online communication forums with unrestrcted memberships?
  
  • Posters do NOT have expectation of privacy or do they?
• Harm resulting from direct participation in research (ie. emotional reactions)
  
  • Can post debrief materials & even tailor info to specific consition of subject (but cannot assess subject’s state)

Question 14

In Summary

Answer 14

• online research has some major advantages (Low cost, diverse subject pool) to traditional means of conducting social psych research)

Question 15

What is a Longitudinal Study?

Answer 15

• studying something over time…at least 2 time points
• can study stability vs. change
  • Ex) Time 1 = beginning of school
  • Time 2 = end of school year

Question 16

Longitudinal Study: Advantage of Sampling More than Once

Answer 16

• does NOT rely on retrospective (thinking back) reports
  • you report immediately
  • more accurate

Question 17

Diary or Experience Sampling Methods (ESM)

Answer 17

• can record daily events
• go about everyday lives except that asked to report what you have done or experienced or felt (via electronic or paper diary) at some interval
• report at specific intervals: once a day, or specific times a day (after each mean) or specific time intervals (every hour)
• at a signal from the researcher (email prompt, text message)
• when an event occurs (when on a date)
• *depends on phenomenon under study

Question 18

Paper & Pencil Diaries

Answer 18

**easy to implement, **but:

• participants may forget to write in their diary
• potential for retrospection error for missed entries
• burden of data entry and handling

Benefits:

• can reprint the dates & times of expected responses on diary sheets
• prompt entries with pagers, preprogrammed wristwates, phone calls, or mobile phones (alarm, email, text msgs)

Question 19

Electronic Diaries

Answer 19

• NO data entry
• allow for signaling/reminders
• date & time-stamp entries
• better response rates
• later questions can be sensitive to earlier responses
• **BEST/PREFERRED method!!

Question 20

Which Kind of Diary Do You Use?

Answer 20

• depends on sample (practical) & goals of study (theoretical)

Question 21

Meta-Analysis

Answer 21

• quanititative approach for systematically combining results of previous research to arrive at conclusions about the body of research
• can combine heterogeneous data from heterogeneous studies
• POPULAR - they have steadily increased

Question 22

Origins of Meta Analysis: The Great Debate

Answer 22

• 1951: Hans J. Eysenck → NO favorable effects of psychotherapy
• 1978: Gene V. Glass → statistically aggregated the findings of 375 psychotherapy outcome studies, concluded that psychotherapy DID work

Question 23

Why Do We Use Meta Analysis?

Answer 23

• traditional methods of review focus on statistical significance testing
• significance testing is NOT well suited to this task
  • highly dependent on sample size
  • null finding does NOT carry same “weight” as a significant finding

Why we use meta analysis:

• to synthesize results once a large body of work has been conducted
• to investigate large-scale patterns beyond the scope of individual experiments

Question 24

When do we use meta analysis?

Answer 24

collections of research that:

• are empirical, rather than theoretical
• produce quantitative results, rather than qualitative findings
• examine the same constructs & relationships
• have findings that can be configured in a comparable statistical form (ie. a correlation coefficient is used for effect sizes)

Question 25

Effect Size

Answer 25

• the “dependent variable”
  
  • standardizes findings across studies so can be directly compared
• any standardized index can be an “effect size” (ie. correlation coefficient) as long as:
  
  • comparable across studies (generally requires standardization)
  • represents the magnitude & direction of the relationship of interest
  • is independent of sampe size
• Different meta-analyses may use different effect sizes

Question 26

Conducting: Overview

Answer 26

Developing a research question

Identify your studies

Determine eligibility of studies

• Inclusion: which ones to keep
• Exclusion: which ones to throw out

Abstract Data from the studies

Analyze data in the studies

Question 27

Searching far and wide for meta-analysis

Answer 27

The “we only included published studies because they have been peer-reviewed” argument

• Significant findings are more likely to be published than nonsignificant findings
• Critical to try to identify and retrieve all studies that meet your eligibility criteria
• potential sources for identification of documents:
  
  • computerized bibliographic databases
  • authors working in the research domains
  • conference programs, dissertations, review articles, hand searching relevant journals, reference sections

Question 28

Methodological adequacy of research base

Answer 28

• studies often cannot simply be grouped into “good” or “bad” studies
• some methodological weaknesses may bias the overall findings, other may merely add “noise” to the distribution

Question 29

Interpreting Effect Sizes

Answer 29

Cohen’s “Rule of Thumb”

• standardized mean difference effect size (d)
  
  • small = 0.20
  • medium = 0.50
  • large = 0.80
• correlation coefficient
  
  • small = 0.10
  • medium = 0.25
  • large = 0.40
• Rules-of-Thumb do NOT take into account the context of the intervention
  
  • a “small” effect may be highly meaningful for an intervention that requires few resources and imposes little on the participants
  • small effects may be more meaningful for serious and fairly intractable problems

Question 30

Sources of bias

Answer 30

• Publication Bias
• studies that show no effect are less likely to be published
• “file drawer problem”
• Create a funnel plot with effect size versus sample size

Question 31

Funnel Plot: Study Bias

Answer 31

• Plots the effect size against the sample size of the study
• look at its LOWER LEFT corner, that’s where negative or null studies are located
  If EMPTY, this indicates “PUBLICATION BIAS”
• Note that here, the plot fits in a funnel, and that the left corner is not all that empty, but we cannot rule out publication bias

Question 32

Strengths of meta-analysis

Answer 32

• Represents findings in a more differentiated and sophisticated manner than conventional reviews
• Capable of finding relationships across studies that are obscured in other approaches
• Protects against over-interpreting differences across studies
• Can handle a large numbers of studies

Question 33

Weaknesses of meta-analysis

Answer 33

Requires a good deal of effort

• “Apples and oranges”; comparability of studies is often in the “eye of the beholder”
• Most meta-analyses include “blemished” studies
• Selection bias poses continual threat
  
  • negative and null finding studies that you were unable to find and outcomes for which there were negative or null findings that were NOT reported

Question 34

Overall conclusion of meta-analysis

Answer 34

Meta-analysis is a replicable & defensible method of synthesizing findings across studies

• Meta-analysis often points out gaps in the research literature, providing a solid foundation for the next generation of research on that topic
• Meta-analysis illustrates the importance of replication
• Meta-analysis facilitates generalization of the knowledge gain through individual evaluations

Question 35

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Answer 35

• considered useful measure b/c responses are beyond intentional control & awareness
• ** measures social knowledge
• assesses your associations over time
• 1998 Nowek et al.

Question 36

Nosek et al. (2007)

Answer 36

• 2.5 million completed IATs
• 17 topics
• July 2000 - May 2006

Topics:

• Social Group Attitudes
• Social Group Stereotypes
• US political Attitudes

Sample:

• Predominantly WHITE (European Amer.) Females
• mean age was 26
• 61% of participants aged 25 or older had a bachelor’s degree or more education

Findings:

• implicit & explicit comparative preferences and sterotypes found across gender, ethnicity, age, political orientation and region
• implicit & explicit attitudes and stereotypes varied a lot across individuals
• implicit & explicit attitudes and stereotypes were generaly positively related, but strength of relation varied across topics
• Men stronger implicit & explicit social group prefernces for higher-status groups
• E. Amer & Asians showed stronger social group preferences & stereotypes but varied by topic
• Adults over 60 showed the strongest social preferences & stereotypes implicitly and explicitly
• conservatives consistently showed stronger implicit & explicit social preferences and stereotype for higher-status groups
  
  • difference was most pronounced explicitly

*

Question 37

Implicit Measures

Answer 37

unintentional, unconscious biased evaluations which are automatically activated by mere presence of attitude object (target group)

outside your awareness

Question 38

Examples of Implicit Measures

Answer 38

• Response latency procedures following priming (ie. IAT)
• Memory tasks
• Psychophysiological measures

Question 39

Utility of Implicit Measures

Answer 39

thought to assess the “true” extent of people’s bias (but later challenged)

Question 40

Concerns with Implicit Measures

Answer 40

• stability of individual differences
• only modest relationships btwn diff. implicit measures

Question 41

Are explicit measures archaic?

Answer 41

are people lying for socially desirability (SD) reasons?

Question 42

How to Reduce SD Concern

Answer 42

“Bogus Pipeline” apparatus intended to serve as a lie-detector

• told that researcher can assess their true attitude while hooked up to electrodes
• but CANNOT be used with children & time-consuming

Other Steps:

• Assuring anonymity
• Allowing for maximum privacy
• Limiting face-to-face contact btwn subject & experimenter
• Administer SD measures and controlling for responses in analyses

Question 43

Relation between Explicit & Implicit Measures

Answer 43

• generally weak

Question 44

Summary of Implicit & Explicit Measures

Answer 44

• attitudes may be examined at explicit & implicit levels
• NO one level represents “true” attitudes
• different aspects predict diff. types of behavior

Question 45

Fast Friends Procedure - Aron et al.

Answer 45

• questions start with simple, less personal questions & gradually toward much more personal and sometimes more serious questions, which develops a sense of closeness between the 2 people in a short period of time
• has been shown to reduce bias between groups

Question 46

Operational Definition of Construct

Answer 46

* Define the construct in several sentences

• Consider: what are closely related constructs- how does your contruct differ from those of other constructs

Question 47

Decisions, Decisions, Decisions

Answer 47

• With that definition in mind, what would be an appropriate closed-ended way to measure that construct?
  
  • we DON’T want to have to code things ourselves
• Should the questions be subtle or explicit?
• Face Validity: extent to which questionnarie appears to measure what its intended to measure
  
  • the more explicit your items are, the higher the face validity
• Open-ended? NO
• Scenarios with several response choices?
• Question with yes/no or true/false? (forced choice)
• Statement with agree/disagree scale
  
  • label all response choices?
• How many items? (at least 5-10)
• Internal reliability tends to INC. as the # of items INC.
• How to avoid acquiescence response set - people’s tendency to say “yes”/”true”/”agree”
• How to avoid socially desirable responding
• Best if instructions are clear & easy to understand

Question 48

Optimism Definition

Answer 48

people who expect good things to happen to them

Question 49

Life Orientation Test (Scheier et al. 1994)

Answer 49

• most established optimism measure
• 2055 undergrads completed the measures
• Fillers - used to cover what you’re measuring; adds diversity to measure
  1. In uncertain times, I usually expect the best
• It’s easy for me to relax (filler)
  3. If something can go wrong for me, it will*
• * = reverse item; adds noise to measurement
• you must disagree with this question to score HIGH in optimism
  4. I’m always optimistic about my future
• I enjoy my friends a lot (filler)
• It’s important for me to keep busy (filler)

7. Ihardly ever expect things to go my way *
   * I don’t get upset too easily (filler)
8. I rarely count on good things happening to me*
9. Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad

Question 50

Factor Structure of Scale (Scheier et al. 1994)

Answer 50

• One factor structure - all items seem to measure the same thing
• NOT looking at filler items!

Factor Loadings

• Only looking at FACTOR loadings/items
  
  • you want them to be > 0.5

Question 51

Internal Consistency

Answer 51

• Cronbach’s alpha = .78
• indicateds internal consistency of responding
• the way you respond to one item is the same to the way you respond to other items

Question 52

Testing the Measure

Answer 52

• Internal Consistency
• Test-retest Reliability

Question 53

Revelant constructs: third variable problem

Answer 53

• Trait anxiety
• Neuroticism
• Self-esteem

Question 54

Validity

Answer 54

• Convergent Vaildity
• Discriminant Validity

Question 55

Convergent Validity

Answer 55

• tests that variables expected to converge, do correlate
• you should be able to show a correspondence or convergence btwn similar constructs

Question 56

Discriminant Validity

Answer 56

• tests that variables expected to be discrepand, do NOT correlate
• you should be able to discriminate between dissimilar constructs

Question 57

Unobtrusive Measures

Answer 57

• participants are UNAWARE that their behavior is being observed or measured
• concealed, hidden or non-obvious measures
• alternatives to questionnaires, interviews, etc.

Question 58

Types of Unobtrusive Measures

Answer 58

• one-way mirrors
• hidden cameras
• tape recorders
• observing people in a public setting

Question 59

Examples of Unobtrusive Measures

Answer 59

• Discrimination among European Amer. teachers towards African Amer. students (Taylor 1979)
• Public acceptance vs. Private rejection (Page 1993. 1995)
• Role of automatic obesity stereotypes in real hiring discrimination (Agerstrom & Rooth 2001)
• Public opinion polls vs. List experiment (Streb et al. 2008)

Question 60

Taylor (1979)

Answer 60

• found subtle forms of discrimination among European Amer. teachers towards African Amer. students
• teachers who indicated a high acceptance of students on questionnaire measures showed LESS positive nonverbal & gestural behaviors towards students when eaching interactions were unobtrusively observed thru one-way mirrors

Question 61

Public acceptance vs. Private rejection

Answer 61

• Page (1993, 1995) made telephone calls to landlords to inquire about publicly advertised rooms for rent & posed as a former psychiatric patient
• 90% of landlord falsified info concerning rental status (indicated the rental was no longer available) - replicated for ppl posing as homosexuals, elderly or HIV positive tenants
• a discrepancy between attitude & behavior emerged - latter measures indicated that landlords had NO problems renting to stimatized persons

Question 62

Role of Automatic Obesity Stereotypes in Real Hiring Discrimination

Answer 62

• Agerstrom & Rooth (2001) examined how often applicants matched on credentials were invited back for a job interview
• callback rate for obsese applicants was significantly LOWER than normal weight applicants
• conducted an IAT several months later
• managers with more negative automatic stereotypes about obese were less likely to invite an obese applicant for an interview

Question 63

Public Opinion Polls vs. List Experiment

Answer 63

**Public Opinion Polls **

• show that majority of Amer. public would vote for a qualified female president

List Experiment (Streb et al. 2008)

• one sample that doesn’t include question (baseline
• then another sample that includes your comparison
• 26% of participants expressed anger over prospect of a female president

Question 64

Addressing Ethical Concerns of Unobtrusive Measures

Answer 64

• studies have to be approved by the IRB
• researchers have to justify their use of unobtrusive measres & show that there’s NO reasonable alternative approach to using an obtrusive measure
• debrief participants at the end of the study

Question 65

Some believe unobtrusive measures are more ethical

Answer 65

• Web et al. (1996) - argued that these measures are more ethical b/c such measures “may avoid the problems of invasion of privacy by permitting the research to gain valuable info without ever identifying the individual actors or in any way manipulate them”

Question 66

Prevalence (or lack thereof) of studies that use unobtrusive measures

Answer 66

Page (2000) wrote article of Journal of Applied Social Psychology & attributed decline to:

• INC. popularity/adherence to informed consent
• DEC. in use of deception
• the effort to conceptualize research participants as cooperative participants

Question 67

Accretion Measures

Answer 67

• another unobtrusive measure
• Accretion: the things ppl leave behind
• another way to look @ ppl’s behaviors & attitude

Question 68

Erosion Measures

Answer 68

• Another unobtrusive measure
• allow researchers to examine how people’s contact with things and places causes actual, visible, physical wear & tear
• Ex) safety habits - observe wear/tear of seat and seatbelts in cars
• Ex) borecom in classroom - damage to student desks & chairs

Question 69

Benefits of Unobtrusive Measures

Answer 69

• allow researchers to examine behavior w/o triggering any reactivity from participant
• can reduce known biases
• allows researchers to study discrepancies between attitudes & behavior

Question 70

Drawbacks of Obtrusive Measures

Answer 70

• LOW internal validity
• CANNOT determine causality
• confounds/extraneous variables
• ethical concerns

Question 71

Altering Implicit Attitudes

Answer 71

• some argue that stereotypes are activated automatically
• does NOT mean that they are immutable & inevitable
• b/c automaticity develops thru repeated occurrence, practice and overlearning…
• to change implicit attitudes need counterinfluences, extensive retraining

Question 72

“Just Say No” [to drugs] public health campaign

Answer 72

• made popular in the US in 1980s by Nancy Reagan
• based on idea of social inoculation Dr. Richard I. Evans - learning how to resist peer pressure

Question 73

Kawakami et al (2000; Study 1)

Answer 73

• tested on undergrads in Netherlands
• Stroop Test: read word NOT color; when color of word matches with word, you should read it faster

Hypothesis: extensive training in negating specific stereotype associations would decrease automatic stereotype activation

Procedure:

1. Stroop Pre-test
2. Extensive training (480 trials) in negating stereotypic associations
3. Stroop Post-test

Results:

• people who went thru training in post-test, they had shorter latencies (response time was quicker) - they said no to the associations

Pre-test: Ps were presented with category label (“skinheads”) followed by a stereotypic trait (ie. aggressive) that was printed in 1 of 4 colors

• Read the first word to yourself and then as quickly as you can name the color of the second word
• Ps must direct their attention toward the naming of the ink-_colors_ and AWAY from the semantic meaning of the words
• If semantic stereotypes are automatically activated, they will interfere with the color naming response and produce longer latencies (it’ll take you longer to say the color)
• it’s only distracting if the ps finds a connection between skinhead and aggression

Extensive Training

• Ps were instructed to NOT activate cultural associations when presented with a picture of a member of a particular category (ie. skinheads)
• if you see stereotypic associations (ie. a skinhead picture with the word “aggressive”) “just say NO!”

Stroop Post-test

• Ps did NOT receive instructions to negate stereotypic associations
• None of the traits were ones used in first 2 phases of the experiment

Question 74

Kawakami et al (2000; Study 3)

Answer 74

• US undergraduates
• Same trial but for Stroop Post-test (either 2, 6, or 24 hours later)
• wanted to know how lasting were the effects of negating their stereotypes
• training had an effect on ppl’s associations

Question 75

Why does **Altering Implicit Attitudes (negating stereotypic associations) work?**

Answer 75

1. cognitive effects involving the strengthening and weakening of category-trait associations
2. motivational effects involving the internalization of a motive not to stereotype
3. combo of 1 and 2

Question 76

Altering Implicit Attitudes Strategy

Answer 76

**Strengths: **

• direct change
• appears promising

Weaknesses:

• intensive & time-consuming

Question 77

Social Psychology - COPY NOTES FROM BB!!!

Answer 77

scientific study of how individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behaviors are affected by the actual, implied, or imagine presence of others

Question 78

ACTUAL presence of other people

Answer 78

• we act differently in the presence of others than we do when alone
• we are affected differently by others based on how we view those others

Question 79

IMPLED presence of other people

Answer 79

• social psychologists, the IRS, and the highway patrol depend on an “impled presence” to bring out the best in us
• humans even display items to remind themselves (and others) that we are “in love” and “taken)

Question 80

IMAGINED presence of other people

Answer 80

• we can stir our emotions & model good (or bad) behaviors just by thinking about others
• …Ever been walking alone in the dark and suddenly thought you heard footsteps behind you?
• …When you were little, did you eat your vegetables because you thought your “hero” did? (A favorite parental trick!)

Question 81

What is Role-Playing?

Answer 81

• acting out the thoughts, feelings and behavior of another person
• Ex) Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment

Question 82

Role-Playing as Alternative to Deception

Answer 82

• Typically the experiment is explained to participants in advance and they are asked to behave as they would if the situation were real or did not know purpose of the research

Question 83

Problems with Role-Play

Answer 83

Internal Validity (can we trust the results are NOT due to distortions of role-playing subjects?)

• Can people really predict how they would behave?
• If familiar situation, can they remember hwo they behaved/felt in the past?

External Vailidty (can be generalize these results to actual situations?)

Question 84

FILM: A Class Divided

Answer 84

• **Jane Elliot - **3rd grade teacher in predominately European Amer. rural school in Iowa in the 1960s
• for one day, she gave her students first-hand experince with discrimination based on eye color

Hypothesis:

• Role-playing being the target of discrimination would lead children to become more tolerant

Question 85

Physiological Measures: Attitude Measurement

Answer 85

Attitude: (Gordon Allport, 1935)

• mental or neural state of readiness, organized thru experience, directly influencing one’s response to all related objects and situations

Question 86

Actions and Attitudes

Answer 86

Head Movement

• when peopls listen to messages they agree with, they tend to move their heads vertically (nod) more than horizontally (shake)

Eye Contact

• If two people like each other, they will make more eye contact than if they do not like each other

Question 87

The Lost Letter Technique:
an INdirect attitude measure

Answer 87

• Migram “planted” stamped, addressed enveloped in public places - appeared “lost”
• letters were addressed to organizations, ex: UNICEP and Nazi groups
• he thought that if you were more interested in an organization, you would be more likely to put it in the mailbox so that it would be delivered
• Migram wanted to determine relationship between mailing rates (how many people mailed the letters) and organizations the evelopes were addressed to)
• According to Milgram, # of letters received for each organization reflected general attitude of population towards that organization
• higher mailing rate = more favorable attitude
• it is only an aggregate attitude measure, but esp. useful in environments where attitudes are suppressed

Question 88

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

Answer 88

• drop in the resistance of the skin to the passage of a weak electric current
• usu. measured in the palm of the hand
• indicative of emotion or physiological arousal
• ** all it measures that their response is NOT neutral (emotional response) or NO response, CANNOT actually tell if its a negative or positive response
• when pleasant words like ‘love’ were presented, participants GSRs were greater than to neutral
• same type of responses were seend when unpleasant words like ‘rape’ were presented to Ps
• when neutral words like ‘chair’ were presented to Ps, their GSRs remained neutral

Question 89

Facial Electromyographic Recording (EMG)

Answer 89

• electrical recording of muscle activity in facial region obtained by placing electrodes on the face
• smile = zygomatic muscles
• frown = corrugator muscles
• used to detect subtle smiles and frowns
• pro-attitudinal mesages activate smile muscles where as counter-attitudinal messages activate from muscles

Question 90

Scaling

Answer 90

• scaled focus on a contiuum from very negative to very positive attidues

Question 91

A Variety of Scales

Answer 91

• Bogardus’ Social Distance Scale
• Likert’s Method of Summated Ratings
• Osgood’s Semantic Differential

Question 92

Bogardus’ Social Distance Scale

Answer 92

• attitudes towards members of social or ethnic groups
• based on assumption that one’s liking for a group is reflected in the social distance that one finds acceptable in relationships with members of the group

Question 93

Likert’s Method of Summated Ratings

Answer 93

• respondents indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a statement
• to ensure scale homogeneity, only items that correlate well with the toal score are kept on the scale
• process of refinement is normally done during the development stage of the scale

Question 94

Osgood’s Semantic Differential

Answer 94

• attitude scale
• includes various subscales that measure the connotative (implied) meaning of the attitude object
• subscales are bipolar
• this approach is based on the finding that there are 3 elements of meaning to all concepts:
  • evaluation (good/bad)
  • potency (strong/weak)
  • activity (active/passive)