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Biology 20 AP > Ch. 6 - Biochemistry > Flashcards

Ch. 6 - Biochemistry Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three important chemical bonds?

A

Covalent Bonds, Hydrogen Bonds, and High Energy Bonds

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2
Q

What are covalent bonds?

A

They contain approximately 3000 calories of of heat energy (12600 kJ)

They are the most common bond in organic molecules that link:
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

The bonds may be in single, double, or triple combinations. Sharing electrons.

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3
Q

What are hydrogen bonds?

A

Weak but significant electromagnetic bonds between positive and negative regions of adjacent (or different) molecules. Or, within a large (macro) molecule.

Most common between Hydrogen and Oxygen.

Between water molecules (the H of one, and the O of another) is an example of a Hydrogen Bond. NOT within a water molecule.

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4
Q

What is a high energy bond?

A

Variation of the covalent bond involving the phosphate group.

Less stable and under some cellular conditions will break to release 8000 calories of heat energy (33600 kJ)

ATP is the most important of this bond, releasing energy in a biochemically useful form.

Adenosine–P–P-(this one)-P

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5
Q

What are functional groups? What are the four?

A

A group of atoms in a molecule with distinctive chemical properties, regardless of the other (R) atoms in the molecule. Biologically active.

Consists of:
- Methyl (R-CH3)
- Carboxylic Acid (R-COOH)
- Amine (R-NH2)
- Alcohol (R-OH)

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6
Q

What is an R-group?

A

“Rest of the molecule”.

The other things of the functional groups, that don’t change the distinct characteristics of the functional groups. Represents any appropriate atom or molecular group.

Variable/changeable

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7
Q

What is the methyl functional group?

A

Typically of hydrocarbons: R-CH3

H
R C H
H

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8
Q

What is the amine functional group?

A

Making amino acids: R-NH2

H    H+ R  C N- 
H    H+

(Charged regions are invovled in hydrogen bonding)

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9
Q

What is the carboxylic acid functional group?

A

Of mostly making acetic acid; vinegar: R-COOH

R C O- H+
O-

(Charged regions are invovled in hydrogen bonding)

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10
Q

What is the alcohol functional group?

A

R-OH

R O- H+
OH

(Charged regions are invovled in Hydrogen bonding)

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11
Q

What are isomers?

A

Chemicals that have the same formula, but are structurally different.

Ex: C3H4

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12
Q

What are polymers?

A

A large molecule made up of smaller repeating monomers.

Ex: Polymer, protein; Monomer, amino acid

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13
Q

What are monomers?

A

Monomers are atoms or small molecules that bond together to form more complex structures such as polymers.

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14
Q

What are the four macromolecules?

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • DNA/RNA
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15
Q

What are carbohydrates?

A
  • Hydrates of carbon (CxH2xOx) (1:2:1), consisting of sugar and starches
  • Large macromolecules made up of smaller repeating units called sugars
  • Most important one is glucose

Can be classified as both monomers and polymers.

For energy storage, and are sugars or polymers of glucose,

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16
Q

What are sugars and how are they classified?

A

Sugars can be in chain form or ring form (often in water). Sugars are isomers of glucose.

Classified as monosaccharides or disaccharides.

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17
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

Monomers.

Simple sugars AND consist of only one sugar molecule.

Ex: Fructose, galactose, ribose

Are simple carbs.

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18
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

Two sugar molecules linked covalently form this.

Ex: Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (galactose + glucose), maltose (glucose and glucose)

Simple carbs.

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19
Q

How are disacchardies formed and explain this process?

A

Dehydration (Condensation) Synthesis: A water molecule is removed when two monosaccharides are joined together.

Ex: C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 = C6H22O11 + H2O

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20
Q

How are disaccharides split and explain this process?

A

Hydrolysis: When they are split or used as an energy source, a molecule of water is added.

Ex: Digestion (+enzymes)

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21
Q

Why is glucose important?

A

Is the basic transportable fuel for most organisms and is the starting material for cellular respiration.

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22
Q

What are the two main isomers of glucose?

A

Glucose - double bond is on the carbon 1
Fructose - double bond is on the carbon 2

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23
Q

What is the molecular structure of glucose?

A

Glucose can exist in two molecular forms, a ring structure and a straight chain form.

The ring structure of glucose is formed when it reacts with water; the hydroxl reacts with the aldehyde. It is more stable

It can create two possible forms. There is an equilibirum state that exists so that any glucose solution contains approximately 37% α-glucose and 63% β-glucose.

To get from one ring structure to the other, you need to pass through the straight chain form.

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24
Q

What are polysaccharides? Give 3 examples.

A

Many sugar molecules bonded together (3 or more), and are repeating units of the same kind (monomers/monosaccarides).

Examples:
- Starches
- Glycogen
- Cellulose

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25
Q

What is starch?

A
  • Main storage molecule in plants
  • Long (100s, huge) chains of glucose
  • Digestable by humans
  • Often α-glucose
  • Not soluble in water
26
Q

What is glycogen?

A
  • Storage polysaccharide made by animals
  • Made in liver, stored in muscles and liver
  • Branched polymer of glucose
  • Soluble in water
  • Often α-glucose (wasn’t included in notes)

We convert glucose to this when we can’t store any more glucose as glucose. After this, they turn into lipids.

27
Q

What is cellulose?

A
  • Structural polysaccharide for building/making things, in plants
  • Made of β-glucose
  • Humans enzymes cannot break it down
  • Insoluble in water
28
Q

What are lipids?

A

(AKA: Fats, Triglycerides)
A group of organic substances that are insoluble in water but dissolve easily in nonpolar organic solvents (ether, benzene).

A fat molecule contains 3 fatty acids joined to one glycerol molecule.

Made of CHO
For cell membranes and energy storage, and include a glycerol with either 1 or 2 fatty acids.

29
Q

How are fat molecules formed?

A

Dehydration (condensation) synthesis. Removes 3 water molecules.

30
Q

What do lipids do?

A

They serve as energy-storage molecules, such as fats and oils, and contain more energy (gram for gram) than carbohydrates. Also make cell membranes.

31
Q

How are fat molecules broken down?

A

Hydrolysis, but also requries the enzyme lipase.

32
Q

Fats can be made from which two types of what?

A

Fatty Acids:
- Unsaturated
- Saturated

33
Q

What are saturated fatty acids?

A

Have no double bonds on the carbon chain.
If they are broken, they cannot take any more hydrogen.

They tend to be animal fats, such as butter, lard, and marbling.
Solids at room temp.

34
Q

What are unsaturated fatty acids?

A

Have one or more double bonds on the carbon chain.
They can take more hydrogen if the double bond is broken.

They tend to be oils and more common in plants.
Liquids at room temp.

35
Q

What are stored fats used for?

A
  • Insulation under skin
  • Energy reserves
  • Cushions for internal organs (ex. kidneys)
36
Q

What are four types of lipids?

A
  • Phosopholipids
  • Glycolipids
  • Waxes
  • Chloesterol/Steroids*
37
Q

What are phospholipids?

A

Soluble in water because one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate group. The phosphate end is hydrophiolic and the fatty acid end is hydrophobic, making them useful for making cell membranes.

38
Q

What are glycolipids?

A

Similar to phospholipids, except they have a sugar replacing the fatty acid instead of a phosphate; they have the same properties and are also used in membranes.

39
Q

What are waxes?

A

Large, stable, structural lipids used to form protective coats on skin, leaves, etc.

40
Q

What are steroids?

A

Grouped with lipids because they are insoluble in water.

41
Q

What is chloresterol and its purpose?

A

Insoluble in water.

Need to make cell membranes, insulate nerves, make hormones, and synthesize Vitamin D.

Made in the liver from fatty acids as well as through the diet.

Saturated fat diets increase chloesterol, and unsaturated fat diets decrease chloesterol.

42
Q

What are proteins?

A

Come in a wide variety of types and functions: contain C, H, O, N, and often S.
Are polymers of their monomers, amino acids.

20 types of amino acids are found in living things, and all have an amine group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH) bonded to a central carbon.

Ex: Hemoglobin, fibrin, collagen, antibodies, enzymes, actin, and myosin.

For blood transport, clot blood, support, immunity, catalysis, muscle action.

43
Q

Why are some amino acids termed essential?

A

9 cannot be made by the body and must be consumed in the diet.

This is the potential problem with a vegan diet, as a.a. are often found in meats.

44
Q

How are proteins formed?

A

Reactions occurs when the amine group of one a.a. is joined to the carboxyl group of another. Water is still removed. Dehydration synthesis.

Forms a peptide bond.

45
Q

What is a peptide bond?

A

Water is removed and the bond formed by dehydration synthesis in proteins is called this—where the carboxyl and amine join.

IN A.A. and PROTEINS.

46
Q

What is the primary structure in a protein?

A

A long chain of amino acids formed with peptide bonds are called a polypeptide. The linear sequence like this is called its primary structure.

47
Q

What is a polypeptide?

A

A long chain of amino acids joined by dehydration synthesis.

48
Q

What is the secondary structure of a protein?

A

Hydrogen bonds forming between different a.a. in a chain may cause a helix or pleated sheet to form.

Proteins that remain in this form are known as fibrous proteins, used for strucutural purposes. Ex: collagen, silk, elastin.

49
Q

What is the tertiary structure of a protein?

A

Folding from interactions between the R groups results in 3D shapes in most proteins.

50
Q

What is a quaternary structure of a protein?

A

After 2 or more polypeptide chains joined together.

51
Q

What are the three ways proteins are broken down?

A
  • Hydrolysis
  • Denaturation
  • Deamination
52
Q

How are proteins broken down by hydrolysis?

A
  • Enzymes are used to split polypeptide bonds
  • Requires addition of water
53
Q

How are proteins broken down by denaturation?

A
  • Changes in pH/temperature may destroy the tertiary structure of a protein
  • Denaturation = temp damage
  • If this is permanent, the protein is coagulated
54
Q

How are proteins broken down by deamination?

A
  • The liver removes the amine group in order to convert a.a. to sugars/lipids
    done to convert excess amino acids.
55
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A
  • Polysaccharides: Include DNA/RNA
  • Monomers: nucleotides.

Made of CHONP and transfer and express genetic information.

56
Q

Which macromolecules can be stored?

A

NOT amino acids or just glucose.

57
Q

What are fibrous proteins?

A

Proteins that remain in secondary form; the hydrogen bonds that form between different a.a. in a chain.

Double helix or pleated sheets.

58
Q

What can the body not store that is so important?

A

Glucose, so it turns it to glycogen.

Also can’t store AA.

Can store FA, but still turns to glycogen.

59
Q

What does the Biuret’s test measure? What colour?

A

Measures prescence of proteins. Turns violet, and the darker it is, the more peptide bonds there are.

60
Q

What does the Benedict’s test measure? What colour?

A

Measures prescence of reducing sugars; all monosacc. are, but not all di. or poly. are. Turns orange if positive.

61
Q

What does the Iodine test measure? What colour?

A

Measures prescence of starches. Turns blue-black if positive.

62
Q

What do all organic compounds have?

A

Carbon

Biology 20 AP (11 decks)

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