Ch. 9 Flashcards
(17 cards)
Define Orthography
The conventional spelling system of a language.
Define Grapheme
isual representation of the sounds.
What is Onset and Rime?
ONSET (the initial consonant or consonant cluster) AND THE RIME (the vowel plus any consonants after it)
What is Fixation and Saccade?
Fixations and Saccades: When you are reading, your eyes move differently than at other times–you do not look at words one by one and one after another in a strict sequence. When you are reading, your eyes do two things- -FIXATE AND SACCADE.
First, your eyes will focus on a series of 3-4 words at a time; this is FIXATION. During this time, you are taking in information from the words and processing it.
Then your eyes jerk–or SACCADE–to the next group of 3-4 words, where they fixate again and take in more information and process it. During reading is the only time that your eyes do this.
What is Scanning?
In order to read texts in English, we have to train our eyes to take in information in a certain way. We have to move our eyes from left to right (linear) across the page and from the top to bottom of the page. This is called SCANNING. Our eyes do not normally move this way except when we are reading
What are the adult reading rates?
Average, Optimal, and Superior
Average: 200-400 WPM (300 average wpm)
Optimal: 800 WPM
Superior: 1000 WPM
At the other end of the scale, some researchers suggest that 180 words per minute “may be a threshold between immature and mature reading and that a speed below this is too slow for efficient comprehension or for the enjoyment of text” (Higgins & Wallace 1989: 392).
What are the differences between Oral and Written Language Development?
Spoken Language is not learned it is acquired, unlike written language which is learned. OL is learned through interaction; WL is not. OL relies on shared, immediate context; WL involves a reader and writer. OL is based on dialogue and negotiated meaning; WL - Context is not immediate - writer isn’t present. OL is NOT deliberately taught to children; WL relies on inferred (not shared) meaning. OL is a constant process; WL is very structured. OL - sound corresponds to meaning; WL symbols used to represent sound to get meaning.
What are the phonological abilities essential to reading?
A person needs to know the names of the letters of the alphabet and be able to name them quickly with little or no hesitation.
A person needs to learn grapheme-phoneme correspondences (at least the basic, least exceptional ones) and have a rapid, automatic response to them.
A person must learn how to SCAN when reading. Scanning is a skill that needs to be practiced and that takes time to develop. Having a child use his or her finger (finger-pointing) to follow the lines while reading is a good way to help train the eye for scanning.
A person has to learn that the ORIENTATION of letters makes a difference in their sound. The letters “b” (stem left up), “d” (stem right up), “p” (stem left down) and “q” (stem right down) are all very similar, but they have different orientations.
Children need to learn how to write while they are learning to read because writing the letters forces a person to pay attention to the orientation and the serial arrangement of graphemes within the word.
A person has to be able to blend together the individual phonemes within words, rather than view them as isolated sounds. Activities in the newer phonics-based reading programs utilize onsets and rimes to teach blending. The ONSET is everything before the vowel in a syllable. The RIME is the vowel sound (the nucleus) and everything after it (the coda) within a syllable. Rhyming words make use of the onsets and rimes and are very useful in developing phonemic awareness in children as they learn to read.
A person must be able to read fast enough to understand what he/she is reading. Most children do not understand what they are reading when they have to isolate every word and process it individually. In the beginning stages, children’s reading is a CONTROLLED process, not an AUTOMATIC one.
What is the first stage in reading development? Describe it.
EMERGENT READERS: (pre-school to about grade 2)
These children are starting to develop an awareness of the printed word, of
books, and of the process of reading.
Children in this stage have learned that books contain stories.
They frequently “practice” reading and try to read without assistance
They are able to talk about familiar stories and the characters in them
They are also starting to recognize a limited number of words in certain
contexts (high frequency words).
In the latter part of this stage, children start to develop skills of letter
discrimination and can decode single words and simple stories that use cueing through illustration (i.e., the illustration appears before the words to help the reader predict what is coming next).
What is the second stage in reading development? Describe it.
DEVELOPING READERS: (Grades 2 through 4)
These are children who are developing the concept of reading for meaning. They understand meaning is contained in and “taken” from the printed page
by the reader.
They understand that reading is done to get meaning and information from a
text.
Developing readers are able to use grapheme-sound associations in context
to confirm their predictions about the pronunciation of unfamiliar words they
encounter.
Readers at this stage are also starting to use the larger content of the text to
help them interpret the meaning of unfamiliar words within sentences.
Additionally, they are beginning to use strategies of re-reading and self-
correcting during reading–tactics that are also used by proficient adult readers.
What is the third stage in reading development? Describe it.
INDEPENDENT READERS (also called mature readers): (Grades 4-8)
By this stage, children are reading on their own and reading when they are
alone–they can and do read “for fun”.
They are able to use a number of cues (textual, illustrative, morphemic, and
syntactic) to interpret what they read.
Independent readers don’t need to pay much attention to the details of
individual words (spelling, pronunciation, syllables, suffixes, prefixes) because they are focusing more on constructing and maintaining meaning from the text as a whole.
They are able to read and can appreciate a number of different styles and genres of writing (casual vs. formal styles, poetry, prose, editorials, essays, non-fiction).
Independent readers are increasingly able to draw parallels between what they read and real-life experiences and vice versa. They can compare what they have read in the past with what they are reading now, and can also compare a book to a movie or a television show.
What is the first stage in reading acquisition? Describe it
LOGOGRAPHIC: from about age 4 to 8 [preschool- 2nd grade]
SPELLING
In this stage, children’s spelling is symbolic and has no connection to
phonology.
Because he hasn’t made the connection between letters and sounds yet, the child may spell words with random letters or similarly oriented letters–“ball” may be spelled as “dall” based on similarities of letter shape and orientation.
READING
Readers in this stage directly connect certain visual aspects of a word with its
meaning. Children in this stage learn words by memorizing their shapes or other distinctive visual features; these visual features don’t involve grapheme-sound relationships.
Students can read a few HIGH-FREQUENCY WORDS (sight words).
Students use word length, shape of the word, or similar cues (such as
orientation of letters within the word).
What is the second stage in reading acquisition? Describe.
ALPHABETIC: from about age 6 to 10 [1st -5th grade] SPELLING
Children will words by attempting to isolate the phonemes in words and
represent them with letters. This stage is sometimes called the “letter name” stage in spelling.
Children in the Alphabetic stage of spelling will make use of simple grapheme-sound relationships. They can note that the “b” in “boy” stands for the /b/ sound, that “cat” ends with a letter “t” that represents the /t/ sound.
They may not be able to make all the needed letter-sound associations in word; they may only associate the first or last letters with particular sounds.
Students may overemphasize phonics and produce words that are graphically very similar to the target word—BAD for BAND.
Spelling reflects children’s growing knowledge of grapheme-sound relationships. At first they may only use the initial consonants to spell words such as using F = fire. Later, they add the final consonant–FR = fire; finally they will add vowel letters or what they THINK is the correct representation of the vowel sound: FIR or FAYR = fire
READING
This stage in reading corresponds to the “letter name” stage in spelling;
readers in this stage make more use of grapheme-sound relationships.
Just as with spelling, they can note that the “b” in “boy” stands for the /b/ sound, that “cat” ends with a letter “t” that represents the /t/ sound. They may not be able to make all the needed letter-sound associations in word, but reading is becoming more accurate and reliable because the child makes the connection between the letters and the sounds they represent, not between a word’s meaning and an arbitrary visual feature.
Students start to make use of grapheme-sound relationships to decode unfamiliar words
Students may analyze words by sound: r-a-t = rat
Students can read more words and can learn new words more easily because they use the relationships between a word’s letters and its sounds to help them remember it.
What is the third stage in reading development? Describe
ORTHOGRAPHIC: age 6-10, but after the logographic stage [1st -5th grade] SPELLING
Children begin to use more sophisticated methods to make associations between print and sound, using segments larger than individual phonemes (morphemic units) and patterns (spelling analogies) to help them spell.
Students will still have problems spelling words that are irregular phonologically, such as “colonel” or “bouquet”.
Students begin relying more on orthographic information than on phonological information to guide their spelling. They will use tactics such as adding final “e” or using doubled vowels for tense (i.e., long) vowels, often in the “wrong” places, as in GOSTE for ghost.
READING
Students at this stage are able to use a number of simple phonological codes
and patterns to help them read phonologically regular words.
They are also able to use morphological patterns to help them read and understand new words.
Chapter 9 lecture notes 14
Students are able to recognize natural units in words (onset and rime; syllables) and can use these longer units to decode words. Instead of sounding out all the sounds in a word, children are able to “cluster” the word into units of onset and rime:
“goat” is not /g/ + /o/ + /t/, but /g/ + /ot/.
Students use their knowledge of orthographic features such as final “e” (bake) or two vowels together “oa” (goat) to decode words. The student may use the final “e” as a sign that the vowel sound in “cape” is /e/ rather than /a/. Likewise, a student in this stage would be able to read a non-word such as “pome” using this phonological code.
Students will still have problems reading words that are irregular phonologically, such as “colonel” or “bouquet”.
Students are starting to be able to understand the concept of HOMONYMS– words that sound the same but are spelled differently.
What is the Sub-Vocalization Hypothesis?
SUB-VOCALIZATION HYPOTHESIS
This hypothesis proposes that in order to get meaning from a printed page, we (the readers) have to say the words to ourselves, either sub- vocally (muttering) or silently.
In order to understand the symbols (the letters), we have to sub- vocalize them; the brain matches the sounds we make to ourselves to the phonological representations and we then match that to the meaning stored in the brain.
Most children in the early developmental stage of reading will use sub- vocalization. However, not all children do this; some may already be competent in their reading skills and others may not be able to read at all because they have no idea that individual graphemes represent certain sounds.
PRINT SUBVOCALIZE PHONOLOGICAL REPRESENTATION MEANING
What is the Direct Access Hypothesis?
DIRECT ACCESS HYPOTHESIS
This hypothesis suggests that when we read, we go from the entire
printed word straight to its meaning with no phonological
representation.
In the Direct Access Hypothesis, we don’t have to consider how the
word sounds at all. Instead, every symbol directly relays a meaning
rather than a sound.
Although it is highly unlikely that we read EVERYTHING this way, we do
use it in very limited circumstances. PRINT MEANING
What is the Phonological Recoding Hypothesis?
PHONOLOGICAL RECODING HYPOTHESIS
Here, when we look at the printed page, the words link directly to a
phonological code in the brain, and from here we get the meaning.
This theory suggests that we access the phonological code–the way a
word sounds–when we read and write.s
PRINT PHONOLOGICAL REPRESENTATION MEANING
