ch 9: Skinner

Question 1

Background

Answer 1

B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) created a theory based on radical behaviourism. This means he
believed that behaviour is shaped by the environment. His theory is different from most
personality theories, which often focus on things inside a person, like thoughts, feelings, or
traits. Instead of these “mental” explanations, Skinner focused only on the environment’s role
in shaping behaviour.
If personality theories are defined as those that explain what happens inside a person,
Skinner’s wouldn’t count. But if personality theories aim to explain human behaviour in
general, then his theory is not only valid but very important. Skinner wanted to offer a new
kind of explanation, one that didn’t rely on internal causes like desires or traits, but instead on
how the environment shapes behaviour.
Skinner grew up in a loving but strict home in Pennsylvania. As a child, he enjoyed building
things like wagons and model planes. He even built a potato-shooting cannon. He did well in
school, liked music and other activities, and got a degree in English literature in 1926. But he
often got into trouble for playing pranks and was once nearly expelled.
At first, Skinner wanted to be a writer, but when that failed, he had a crisis of confidence.
Reading the work of Pavlov and Watson helped him, and in 1928 he began studying
psychology at Harvard. He earned his doctorate in 1931 and had a successful career as a
professor and researcher. Though he stayed focused on science, his dream of being a writer
came back in 1945, when he wrote Walden Two, a book about a society shaped by
behaviourist principles.
Skinner became one of the most famous, and most debated, psychologists. He won many
awards, including the U.S. Medal of Science and top honours from the American
Psychological Association.
Given Skinner’s belief that behaviour is shaped by the environment, it’s interesting to ask
how his own life followed this idea. Skinner believed that everything in his life could be
explained by environmental influences. One example: as a child, his mother would call him
back if he didn’t hang up his pyjamas. To avoid this, he built a system using ropes and a sign
to remind him. This likely led to him being praised (a form of positive reinforcement), which
may explain his later focus on creating learning tools like the Skinner box. He even structured
his own life rigidly, sleeping in a cupboard in his study and waking after three hours to keep
working.

Question 2

The view of the person underlying the theory

Answer 2

 Skinner’s view of humanity is based on the principles of evolutionism (all organisms,
including humans, are the outcome of evolution). He believes that humans, like any
other organism, are the outcome of the process of evolution.
The philosophical and historical origins of behaviourism:
 Empiricism: human mind is without knowledge at birth and knowledge is
sensory based
 Environmental determinism: environment has outsized influenced on the
person
 Positivism: only what is knowable matters and things like the unconscious
cannot be known and cannot be scientifically studied.
 Evolutionism: humans are part of evolutionary process
The view of the person
 Lundin defines personality in light of behaviourism as: that organisation of unique
behaviour equipment an individual has acquired under the special conditions of his
development.
 Skinner’s view of humanity is based on the principles of evolutionism and
determinism:
 Regards observable behaviour as psychology’s sole object of study.
 Humans, like any other organism, are the outcome of evolution.
 No essential difference between humans and animals – except for the
complexity of the behaviour between the species.
 Regards it unnecessary to ascribe goal orientation and conscious planning to
any organism.
 Environment determines what behaviour will or will not be repeated in
future.
 Behaviours only survive because they are environmentally reinforced.
 All behaviour is understood as the lawful result of environmental factors
 Hence behaviour can be controlled and manipulated by manipulating the
environment.
 Describes personality as a black box. He means that internal structure and
functioning not accessible to scientific inquiry. Avoids the use of subjective
matters such as feelings, thoughts, needs, drives and objectives as
explanations of behaviour – can be explained in terms of environmental
variables. Humans have no choice regarding their behaviour.
Background of the theory:
 One of the most influential theories of human functioning.
 Provides an explanation of behaviour from a completely different perspective to that
of conventional personality theories.
 Differs from depth personality theories - does not conceptualise personality as
something that occurs within the individual (mentalistic explanations) but still an
important ‘personality theory’ in that it attempts to explain human functioning
through environment-oriented explanations.
 Explains needs/drives as the period during which an individual is deprived of
something essential to their survival.

Question 3

The structure of the personality

Answer 3

Respondent behaviour
Operant behaviour

Question 4

Respondent behaviour

Answer 4

 Respondent behaviour refers to behaviour that is stimulated by something to which
the organism responds.
 This ‘something’ that precedes (comes before) and controls the behaviour is called a
stimulus. A stimulus, according to Skinner, is any observable object or change in the
environment and the response is obviously the behaviour that follows the stimulus.
The stimulus therefore causes the response.
 Skinner regards re-exes (for example, the blinking of the eyes in response to sharp
light) as well as learnt (conditioned) responses (for example, the swift turning of the
head when hearing the click of a gun) as respondent behaviour. He points out,
however, that it is often impossible to distinguish between innate and acquired
respondent behaviour, and that the distinction is therefore relatively unimportant.

Question 5

The structure of the personality
Operant behaviour

Answer 5

 Skinner’s main concern, is distinguished from respondent behaviour by two
characteristics in particular. Firstly, it is not preceded by any specific identifiable
stimuli, and it therefore appears to be produced spontaneously by the organism. For
this reason, it is sometimes called emergent behaviour. Secondly, operant behaviour
has an effect on the environment and is controlled by this effect (whereas respondent
behaviour is controlled by the stimuli preceding it). When, for example, a pigeon
‘accidentally’ pecks at a red disk for the first time at the start of an experiment, this is
regarded as operant behaviour because the pigeon produces it spontaneously.
 Persistence in the behaviour is controlled by its effect on the environment: if the effect
is that food drops into the cage, the behaviour is soon repeated; if it has no positive
effect, the behaviour is not repeated soon, if at all.

Question 6

The dynamics of the personality

Answer 6

 Skinner does not speculate on motivation, rather on learning through behavioural
control.
 Focuses on which environmental factors control behaviour – specifically how
behaviour is acquired (or learned) through concepts of behaviour and reinforcement.
 The organism learns by producing behaviour randomly – may or may not be repeated
depending on the outcome.
 When behaviour is repeated, or its frequency increases, the behaviour has been learnt
or reinforced.
 Reinforcers usually associated with the organism’s survival – explanation for why
behaviour reinforced by some consequences and not by others.

1. Classical or respondent conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Breakdown of the dynamics of personality:

Question 7

The dynamics of the personality
Classical or respondent conditioning

Answer 7

 Skinner refers to Pavlov’s classical conditioning as respondent conditioning, where an
organism learns to associate an existing response with a new stimulus.
 This occurs by repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) with an
unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally triggers a response (salivation).
Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the same
response, now called a conditioned response.
 Skinner is not particularly interested in this form of learning, as it only links an
existing response to a new stimulus rather than creating new behaviours. Instead, he
favours operant conditioning, which explains how new behaviours are learned
through reinforcement.

Question 8

The dynamics of the personality
Operant conditioning

Answer 8

 Skinner claims operant conditioning can bring about the learning of new responses.
 Behaviour is controlled by the environmental stimuli (outcomes) that come after the
behaviour.
 Leads to an increase/repeat in behaviour – repeated because behaviour satisfies a
need/experienced as positive or pleasant.
 Behaviour increases under certain conditions due to environmental reinforcement and
not due to intrapsychic drives or motivations
 Example, employees who are rewarded with an increase for working hard, may work
harder due to the reward
 A classic example of operant conditioning is the Skinner box, where a pigeon learns to
peck a red disk to receive food, demonstrating how behaviour is shaped by
reinforcement.
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 Concepts of reinforcers:
 Reinforcer: Any environmental condition/stimulus increases the probability
that behaviour will be repeated when that condition/stimulus succeeds the
behaviour.
 Primary reinforcer: Anything of biological value to the organism such as
food and water.
 Secondary reinforcer: Stimulus which has acquired reinforcement value
because of its association with primary reinforcers. E.g., money, admiration
of others, respect.

Question 9

Breakdown of the dynamics of personality:

Answer 9

1. Reinforcement
   o A process that establishes behaviour, increasing the likelihood of it being
   repeated.
   o A reinforcer is any environmental condition or stimulus that increases the
   probability of a behaviour occurring again.
   o Reinforcement can be positive or negative:
2. Positive Reinforcement
   o A positive (pleasant) stimulus is added after a behaviour, increasing the
   likelihood of repetition.
   o Example: A pigeon pecks a red disk and receives food; a student gets a star for
   good performance.
3. Negative Reinforcement
   o A negative (aversive or unpleasant) stimulus is removed after a behaviour,
   increasing the likelihood of repetition.
   o Example: A pigeon stops receiving electric shocks after pecking a red disk;
   taking medication relieves stomach pain, making future use more likely.
4. Punishment (Decreasing Behaviour)
   o Aimed at decreasing behaviour, can occur in two ways:
    Administration of an aversive stimulus: A pigeon is shocked after
   pecking a red disk; a child is smacked for jumping on the sofa.
    Removal of a positive stimulus: A pigeon’s food is taken away to
   decrease pecking; a child loses TV privileges for misbehaviour.
5. Extinction
   o Behaviour decreases and eventually disappears when neither positive nor
   negative stimuli follow it.
   negative stimuli follow it.
   o Extinction burst: A behaviour will initially increase in frequency (due to a lack
   of reinforcement) before it finally disappears (if reinforcement remains
   withheld).
   withheld).
   o Example: A pigeon stops pecking a red disk when it no longer produces a
6. Shaping
   o Dividing final desired behaviour into smaller steps, where each step
   approximates the final behaviour.
   o According to Skinner, this is the primary manner in which human being
   acquires complex behaviours.
   o Generally used by animal trainers where it is easy to control/manipulate
   sequence with conditioning.
   sequence with conditioning.
7. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
8. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
   o Primary reinforcers: Anything of biological value (food, water).
   o Primary reinforcers: Anything of biological value (food, water).
   o Secondary reinforcers: Stimuli associated with primary reinforcers (money,
   approval).
9. Schedules of Reinforcement
   o Programs governing how reinforcers are delivered, affecting behaviour
   conditioning.
   o Two main types:
    Continuous reinforcement: Every desired response is reinforced
   (pigeon receives food every time it pecks). A reinforcer follows
   immediately after each desired response. Behaviour learnt rapidly but
   easier to extinguish. Possible in lab experiments, more difficult to
   reinforce in everyday life.
    Intermittent reinforcement: Desired behaviour is not always reinforced,
   only every now and then. Behaviour learnt slower but more difficult to
   extinguish. Common feature of everyday life. Reinforcer may be
   administered according to interval schedule (timetable) or ratio
   schedule (once desired behaviour has been performed a certain number
   of times).
    Types of Intermittent Reinforcement:
10. Fixed interval: Reinforcement at set time intervals (weekly
    pay check).
11. Variable interval: Reinforcement at irregular time intervals
    (random treats given to a child).
12. Fixed ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses
    (employee paid per 10 items produced).
13. Variable ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number
    of responses (gambling).
    o Effects of Different Schedules on Behaviour
     Continuous reinforcement: Fast learning but easy extinction.
     Intermittent reinforcement: Slower learning but strong resistance to
    extinction.
     Variable ratio schedules: Most resistant to extinction (e.g., gambling).
14. Shaping (Teaching Complex Behaviours)
    o Behaviour is broken down into small steps, with reinforcement for successive
    approximations until the full behaviour is learned.
    o Example: Training a pigeon to peck a red disk high on the wall by reinforcing
    smaller steps leading up to the final behaviour.

Question 10

The development of the personality

Answer 10

Didnt try to develop development theory
interested in effects of learning o the development of human behaviour
optimal dev lie sin learning to behave in a manner that one receives primarily and secondary reinforces and avoids aversive reinforcers (punishment)
indiv doesnt have ability to contribute to own optimal dev due to emotional determinism
contrarily Sinner argues individuals can make decisions to improve their own and other people’s environments in ways that encourage optimal development

 Skinner’s View on Personality Development:
o Did not propose a complete developmental theory but emphasized the role of
learning in shaping behaviour.
o Acknowledged genetic and maturational factors but focused primarily on
environmental influences.

Question 11

Optimal development

Answer 11

 Optimal development lies in learning to behave in such a way that one receives
positive primary and secondary reinforcers and avoids aversive reinforcers.
 Skinner appears to assume that at least some people can take decisions to improve
their own and other people’s environment in ways that will encourage optimal
development.

What does Skinner say about ideal development?
Skinner didn’t write directly about this, but it’s clear from his theory that he believed ideal
development happens when a person learns to act in ways that earn rewards (positive
reinforcers) and avoid punishment (aversive reinforcers).
Can people help themselves grow in a healthy way?
Skinner said people can’t really control their own development because the environment
shapes everything. But this idea seems inconsistent because he also believed that some people, like himself, could make choices to improve their environment and help themselves
or others grow better.

Question 12

Evaluation of the theory

Answer 12

Skinner is one of the most famous and controversial psychologists. His theory, valued for its
scientific and empirical strength, especially in learning and behaviour modification, is also
criticized for its portrayal of humans as lacking freedom and dignity. Although based largely
on animal research, his ideas have shown success when applied to humans. His theory works
well when explaining how environmental factors shape behaviour. However, critics argue it
fails to explain complex aspects of human personality and motivation, like Skinner’s own
long-term commitment to developing and defending his theory. A core contradiction in his
work is that, while he denies human free will, he also calls for intentional societal change,
implying people do have agency. This contradiction challenges the consistency of his
environmental determinism.

Question 13

Implications and applications

Answer 13

Skinner’s theory, which focuses on how the environment shapes behaviour, has been used in
many parts of life. Since Skinner believed that controlling behaviour is the best way to test a
theory, his ideas have been applied to many fields. These include:
 Controlling missiles
 Studying the effects of psychiatric medicine
 Creating educational tools
 Building experimental communities
 Treating people with mental illnesses, autism, and intellectual disabilities
 Understanding child development
Even though his theory avoids focusing on emotions or thoughts, it has had a wide impact.

1. Education
2. Psychotherapy
3. Weakening Undesired Behaviour

Question 14

Implications and applications
Education

Answer 14

Skinner helped create programmed instruction, where learning material is broken into small
steps. Learners get rewards after completing each step. Early versions used teaching
machines; today, this is done using computers. This method is especially useful in places with
few trained teachers.
Programmed instruction is also helpful in remedial education, where rewards help fix
learning problems. In general, Skinner’s idea that rewards improve learning is used in schools
through prizes, tokens, and praise.
Skinner’s research also suggests that partial rewards (not every time) help children remember
behaviours better than constant rewards. This challenges the common idea that parents should
always reward good behaviour. Partial reinforcement might actually help children develop
stronger morals and self-control.

Question 15

Implications and applications
Psychotherapy

Answer 15

In behaviour therapy, problems are seen as learned behaviours that can be changed.
Therapists use two main strategies:
 Teaching new, healthy behaviours
 Reducing or removing harmful behaviours
Teaching Desired Behaviour
1. Token Economy (Operant Conditioning):
Patients are given tokens for good behaviour, which can later be exchanged for
rewards (e.g., snacks, outings). This has worked well in hospitals with people who
have chronic mental illnesses.
2. Classical Conditioning (Respondent Conditioning):
Therapists create new associations to encourage desired behaviours. For example, to
treat sleeplessness, a person is taught to only use their bed for sleep and avoid stress
in that space. A famous example is using a special alarm for children who wet the bed,
helping them learn to wake up when their bladder is full.

Question 16

Implications and applications
Weakening Undesired Behaviour

Answer 16

1. Systematic Desensitisation:
   This method helps people overcome fears by learning to relax in the presence of the
   feared object or situation. It includes three steps:
   o Learning to relax
   o Listing feared situations from least to most scary
   o Imagining each situation while staying relaxed, moving from least to most
   fear-inducing