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A&P 2 > Ch.16 > Flashcards

Ch.16 Flashcards

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1
Q

Function of the endocrine system

A

Works cooperatively with the nervous system to
control homeostasis

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2
Q

Nervous vs Endocrine

KNOW

A
  • Nervous: electrical impulses, fast and over short distance
    – act via action potentials and neurotransmitters at specific locations
  • Endocrine: hormones, slower and over long distance
    – act via hormones released into the blood at targets that blood diffuses to
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3
Q

endocrinology

A

study of endocrine system

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4
Q

major processes of endocrine

A
  1. reproduction
  2. growth & development
  3. maintenance of electrolytes & nutrients
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5
Q

endocrine organs

A
  • are all “ductless glands”
  • secrete hormones directly into the blood
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6
Q

Exocrine function

A
  • produce nonhormonal products (sweat or saliva) that are excreted via ducts to a membrane surface
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7
Q

ONLY endocrine organs

KNOW

A
  • Pituitary
  • thyroid
  • pineal
  • parathyroid
  • adrenal
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8
Q

Endocrine + exocrine organs

A
  1. pancreas
  2. gonads
  3. thymus
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9
Q

Endocrone and neural organ

A

hypothalamus

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10
Q

Hormones

KNOW

A
  • endocrine glands secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood, that regulate the metabolic activity of target cells
  • Target cells have receptors for the hormone
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11
Q

Paracrines

A

act on nearby cells by diffusing through the extracellular fluid

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12
Q

Autocrines

A

act on the same cell that produced them

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13
Q

Steroids

Type of hormone

KNOW

A
  • Made from modified cholesterol
  • Made in gonads and adrenal cortex
  • Not soluble in water so to circulate in the blood they have to be attached to a carrier molecule (generally a protein made by the liver)
  • Soluble in the plasma membrane so receptor is inside the cell
  • Ex: testosterone, estrogen, aldosterone, cortisol; vitamin D is a modified steroid
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14
Q

Amino Acid Based

Type of Hormone

KNOW

A
  • Made of one or many amino acids
  • Made by most endocrine glands
  • Soluble in water so transported “as is” in the blood
  • Not soluble in the plasma membrane so receptor is on the cell membrane surface
  • Peptide hormones can’t be taken orally because they are destroyed by digestive enzymes, thus, diabetics must take insulin via injection
  • Examples: peptides, proteins, human growth hormone, insulin, & glucagon thyroid hormone is only amino acid based NOT water-soluble
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15
Q

Humoral Stimulus

how hormone release is regulated

KNOW

A

Capillary blood contains low Ca^2+ –> simulates secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) by parathyroid glands
- PTH causes high Ca^2+ and stimulus is removed

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16
Q

Neural Stimulus

how hormone release is regulated

KNOW

A

Preganglionic sympathetic fibers stimulate adrenal medulla cells to secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

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17
Q

Hormonal Stimulus

how hormone release is regulated

KNOW

A

Hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate endocrine glands to secrete hormones

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18
Q

up regulation of hormones

A

target cells can increase # of receptors for a hormone if hormone is present in low supply

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19
Q

down regulation of hormones

A

decrease # of receptors for a hormone

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20
Q

direct gene activation

mechanism of hormone action

A
  • used by steroid hormones
    1. hormone moves from blood into intestinal fluid and through the cell membrane
    2. Hormone binds to receptor inside the cell
    3. Activated receptor alters gene expression (a gene is turned on or off so that protein production start or stops)
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21
Q

Second messengers

mechanism of hormone action

A
  • used by amino acid hormones
    1. hormone binds to receptor
    2. Activates G protein
    3. Results in cAMP (second messenger)
    4. activates a kinase that alters proteins in the cell
    5. variety of effects
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22
Q

Cyclic AMP Second Messenger Mechanism of water soluble hormones

KNOW

A
  1. hormone binds to receptor
  2. receptor changes shape –> release of GDP in exchange for GTP
  3. GTP binds adenylate cyclase & either activates it or inhibits it
  4. activated adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
  5. cAMP activates protein kinase: an enzyme that phosphorylates/activates proteins inside the target cell –> protein performs process it is specific for
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23
Q

What three kinds of interactions of different hormones acting on the same target cell?

KNOW

A
  1. Permissiveness: one hormone exterts full efects when another hormone is present
    - Ex: throid hormone
  2. Synergism: additive effect of multiple hormones at a single target
    - Ex: norepinephrine & glucagon release glucose into blood from liver
  3. Antagonism: one hormone opposes activity of another
    - Ex: insulin decreases blood glucose & glycogen increases blood glucose
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24
Q

Effects of hormones on target cells

A
  1. alterations to the plasma membrane
    - change permeability of cell membrane
    - change in resting membrane potential
  2. protein synthesis (make enzymes, receptors + antibodies)
  3. activation/inactivation of an enzyme (starts or stops biochemical pathway)
  4. cellular secretion
  5. cell division
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25
blood levels of hormones
- controlled by negative feedback systems -- increased hormone effects on target organs can inhibit further hormone release - levels vary only within narrow, desirable range
26
Hormone release is triggered by:
- endocrine gland stimuli - nervous system modulation
27
Target Cell Specificity
- target cells must have specific receptors to which hormone binds - Example: ACTH receptors found in adrenal cortex + Thyroxin receptors found all over the body
28
Factors that influence activation of a target cell by a hormone | KNOW
1. blood levels of hormone 2. Relative # of receptors on/in target cell 3. Affinity (strength) of binding between receptor and hormone
29
Hormones can be removed from blood by:
1. Degrading enzymes 2. kidneys 3. liver
30
Half-life
- time required for level of hormone in blood level to decrease by half - varies anywhere from fraction of a minute to a week, depending on hormone
31
Hypothalamus
- located intermediate to thalamus and pituitary gland - receives neural input from cerebral cortex, limbic system and thalamus
32
Relationship of hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
portal system (vascular/ blood vessel connection)
33
Hormones secreted by hypothalamus
- releasing and inhibiting tropic hormones: TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH - regulate release of hormones from endocrine organs
34
What two hormones does hypothalamus secretes?
ADH and Oxytocin to the posterior pituitary gland to store and then release them with stimulation
35
Where does ADH sercete to from the posterior pituitary?
- releases ADH in response to action potentials sent by hypothalamic neurons that extend into posterior pituitary - target: kidneys > reabsorb more water so increase blood volume (so increase blood pressure)
36
Where does oxytocin sercete to from the posterior pituitary?
- releases oxytocin in response to action potentials sent by hypothalamic neurons that extend into posterior pituitary targets: - uterus > contractions - breast > milk ejection
37
Where does ADH sercete to from the posterior pituitary?
- also called vasopressin that increases blood pressure - class of drugs called “pressors” - Target > Kidney: prevents urine formation
38
Diabetes Insipidus
- insufficient amount of ADH caused by head trauma that damages either hypothalamus or posterior pituitary - symptoms: extreme urination, thirst (polydipsia), continuous risk of dehydration & electrolyte imbalance - NOT directly associated with blood sugar – diabetes mellitus is... can be released by other stimuli: pain, low BP & drugs (nicotine, morphine, barbiturates)
39
Posterior Pituitary Gland
- Connected to the hypothalamus via neural connections - Stores ADH and oxytocin which are made in the hypothalamus - Posterior pituitary is neurohypophysis
40
Anterior Pituitary Gland
- Has a vascular connection to the hypothalamus - Hormone release is regulated by tropic hormone secretions from the hypothalamus
41
What are the six peptide hormones from the anterior pituitary gland?
1. Growth hormone (GH) 2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (tropic) 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (tropic) 4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (tropic) 5. Luteinizing hormone (LH) (tropic) 6. Prolactin (PRL) - All but growth hormone (GH) activate target cells via cAMP second- messenger system
42
What are the two classes of hormones? | anterior pituitary
1. tropic (hormones that act on other endocrine glands) 2. direct (hormones that act directly on some other, non-endocrine, part of the body)
43
What does Growth Hormone target and effect? | hormone secreted from anterior pituitary
Targets: many body cells for growth, metabolism of fat, sparing glucose Effect: stimulates growth of bones and muscles
44
Gigantism | KNOW
- hypersecretion in children - GH targets growth plates
45
Pituitary Dwarfism | KNOW
hyposecretion of GH
46
What does Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) target and effect? | hormone secreted from anterior pituitary
- target: thyroid gland will release thyroid hormones to target cells - effect: influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland
47
What does Adrenocorticotropin Hormone (ACTH) target? | hormone secreted from anterior pituitary
- target: adrenal cortex > cortical hormone release - effect: regulates endocrine activity of adrenal gland cortex
48
What does Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) target and effects? | hormone secreted from anterior pituitary
- Ovary > follicle maturation + estrogen production - Testes > sperm production
49
What does Lutenizing Hormone (LH) target and effects? | hormone secreted from anterior pituitary
- Ovary: ovulation + estrogen production - Testes: testosterone production
50
What does Prolactin Releasing Hormone (PRL) target and effect? | hormone secreted from anterior pituitary
breast > produce milk
51
Thyroid Gland
Bi-lobed gland on the anterior trachea, inferior to the larynx
52
Thyroid hormones | released by thyroid gland
- A combination of T3 + T4 secreted by follicular cells; requires Iodine - T4 is converted to T3 at target tissues - Control of release is via TSH by pituitary - Targets: most body cells - Actions: regulates oxygen use and basal metabolic rate, regulate cell metabolism (has a calorigenic effect), regulates growth and development
53
Synthesis of thyroxin/ T3 & T4 (thyroid hormones) | KNOW
1. thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into the follicle lumen 2. Iodide is trapped 3. Iodide is oxidized to iodine 4. Iodine is attached to tyrosine in colloid, forming DIT and MIT 5. iodinated tyrosines are linked together to form T3 and T4 6. Thyroglobulin colloid is endocytosed and combined with a lysosome 7. Lysosomal enzymes cleave T4 and T3 from thyroglubin and hormones diffuses into bloodstream
54
3 Major effects of Thyroid Hormone
- increase basal metabolic rate & produce heat - regulate tissue growth & development (skeletal, nervous & reproductive) - maintain bp via incr # adrenergic receptors in blood vessels
55
Goiter
the result of inadequate iodine intake that results in hypothyroidism
56
Myxedema
general hypothyroidism (not necessarily due to inadequate iodine)
57
Cretinism
hypothyroidism from birth left uncorrected – leads to physical & mental retardation
58
Graves disease
- hypersecretion of thyroid hormones - Autoimmune disease
59
Hormone secreted by throid gland?
Calcitonin - Made by the parafollicular cells - Control is humoral (increased calcium in the blood) - Targets: stimulates osteoblasts to make new bone and inhibit osteoclasts, result is decreased release of calcium into blood
60
Parathyroid gland
- small glands on the posterior aspect of the thyroid has 2 distinct cell types: 1. chief cells secrete PTH 2. oxyphils function unknown
61
Hormone secreted by parathyroid gland? | KNOW
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - Control is humoral > decrease in blood calcium levels Targets: - Kidneys > reabsorb more calcium - Osteoclasts > break down bone - Intestine > absorb more calcium > result is increased blood calcium
62
too much blood calcium results in ___
depression of the nervous system + kidney stones + muscle weakness; also calcium deposits may form in soft tissues
63
too little calcium results in ___
excitation of neurons + muscle cramps/tetany/spasms –> breathing stops!)
64
adrenal gland
- perched on top of kidneys - has a distinct cortex (with 3 zones) and a medulla (part of sympathetic NS / is nervous tissue)
65
Zones of adrenal gland
top: capsule zona glomerulosa zona fasciculata zona retucularis bottom: adrenal medulla
66
zona glomerulosa | outermost zone of adrenal gland
- Secretes mineralocorticoids that balance mineral levels in blood (and thereby blood volume/blood pressure) - Aldosterone is 95% of secretions - Target: kidneys > reabsorb sodium and excrete potassium. Since water will also be reabsorbed, blood volume increases and therefore blood pressure increases
67
Hypertension
HIGH blood pressure
68
Hypotension
LOW blood pressure
69
primary regulators of adrenal cortex
1. high blood volume and/or blood pressure > to kidney > kidney secretes renin > renin produces angiotensin II > angiotensin II stimulates zona glomerulosa in adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone 2. increased K+ in blood: stimulate zona glomerulosa in adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone - both secrete aldosterone that targets kidney tubles to reabsorb sodium and water to excrete potassium > high blood volume and blood pressure
70
Other factors of adrenal cortex
1. Stress: stress makes the hypothalamus produce CRH > stimulate the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH > stimulate zona glomerulosa in adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone - secrete aldosterone that targets kidney tubles to reabsorb sodium and water to excrete potassium > high blood volume and blood pressure 2. high blood pressure and blood volume: > heart > inhibits zona glomerulosa in adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone
71
zona fasciculata | intermediate zone of adrenal gland
- secretes 3 different glucocorticoids involved in metabolism & stress resistance - Cortisol is 95% of secretions - Target: many body cells > increase protein & fat break down, make glucose (gluconeogenesis), decrease the immune system activity
72
Addison’s disease
- inadequate production of glucocorticoids -> inability to tolerate stress, mobilize energy reserves, or maintain proper glucose levels
73
Cushings Disease
- overproduction of glucocorticoids --> excessive breakdown of tissue proteins, impaired glucose metabolism; body fat redistributed; “buffalo hump”
74
zona reticularis | innermost cortical zone of adrenal gland
- secretes Androgens (gonadocorticoids) - Results in secondary sex characteristics (like pubic & armpit hair) and sex drive
75
Hypersecretion in males
maturation of the reproductive organs and appearance of the secondary sex characteristics occurs rapidly; sex drive occurs with a vengeance
76
Hypersecretion in females
development of a beard and masculine pattern of body hair distribution; clitoris grows to resemble a small penis
77
hormones secreted from adrenal gland medulla are ___
Catecholamines 1. Epinephrine (adrenaline) - 80% of mixture - Targets: heart > increase heart rate (therefore ↑ bp) body cells > increase metabolism 2. Norepinephrine - 20% - Target: arteries > vasoconstriction (Constricts Vessels) > therefore ↑ bp - Medulla is part of sympathetic NS
78
Short term stress response | KNOW
cacholamines: epinephrine and norepinephrine 1. increased heart rate 2. increased blood pressure 3. liver converts glycogen to glucose and releases glucose to blood 4. dilation of bronchioles 5. changes in blood flow paterns leading to decreased digestive system activity and reduced urine output 6. increased metabolic activity
79
Long Term Stress responses | KNOW
mineralcortoicods: 1. retention of socium and water by kidneys 2. increased blood volume and blood pressure glucocorticoids: 1. proteins + fat converted to glucose or broken down for energy 2. increased blood glucose 3. supression of immune system
80
Pancreas
- long flat organ - posterior and slightly inferior to the stomach - tail is attached to spleen and head to small intestines - has acinar cells that secrete digestive juices (exocrine) - has Islets of Langerhans (with alpha and beta cells) that secrete hormones (endocrine)
81
Hormones secred by pancreas | KNOW
1. Insulin - Made by beta cells - Control is humoral (increase of blood glucose will stim. its release) - Targets: most body cells (especially skeletal muscle cells and fat cells, but NOT liver, kidney, or brain) > uptake glucose > lowers blood glucose 2. Glucagon - Made by alpha cells - Control is humoral (decrease in blood glucose will stim. its release) - Target: primarily the liver > secrete glucose into blood (gluconeogenesis) > raises blood glucose
82
Type 1 diabetes mellitus
- inadequate insulin production by beta cells in pancreas - A type of autoimmune disease as antibodies that target beta cells are produced
83
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
- Insulin levels are normal but peripheral tissues no longer respond normally, often due to reduction in the number of insulin receptors - 90% of diabetes cases are type 2
84
Pineal gland | KNOW
- Location: in the epithalamus (attached to roof of third ventricle) - Hormon secreted: Melatonin ( Plays role in establishing day and night cycle) > Target: hypothalamus > involved in daily rhythm
85
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
due to increased melatonin production during the winter months - Symptoms: depression, lethargy, concentration problems - Many patients can be treated by exposure to sun lamps
86
Ovaries | Gonad ## Footnote KNOW
- Located in inferior peritoneal cavity of females - secretes estrogen & progesterone - development of the secondary sex characteristics, regulation of menstrual cycle, maintaining pregnancy, preparation of breast for milk production
87
Testes | Gonad ## Footnote KNOW
- Located in scrotum of males - secretes testosterone: development of secondary sex characteristics, production of sperm
88
Placenta hormones | KNOW
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone Human placenta lactogen (hPL): works with estrogen and progesterone to prepare breasts for lactation

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