Ch8-17 Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
What is systematics?
A
A scientific discipline focused on
classifying organisms and determining their
evolutionary relationships.
2
Q
What is phylogeny?
A
The evolutionary history of a species or a group
of species.
3
Q
What is taxonomy?
A
a scientific discipline concerned with
naming and classifying the diversity of life.
4
Q
What is a taxa (sing. Taxon)?
A
A named taxonomic unit at any level of the
phylogenetic hierarchy or classification.
5
Q
What were the 3 graphical representations of life?
A
- Bonnet: Aristotelian ladder great chain of being
- Darwin: systemic fashion, best representation as tree (how life was organized and relationship between groups
- Haeckel: Tree trunk not clear as organisms only go from simple to complex to human
6
Q
Explain spherical bush?
A
Outer tree is living species which all stem from inside common ancestor Luca
7
Q
What do homologous structures indicate?
A
Homologous structures indicate a common ancestor and is data used to reconstruct phylogenies.
8
Q
What is homoplasy?
A
Indicates independent evolution like convergent evolution in sugar glider and flying squirrel or evolutionary reversion in whale having no hair even though its a mammal.
9
Q
How are living organisms identified, systematically ?
A
Through binomial system in which it’s named by the
Genus Species
10
Q
What is classification?
A
System of
words used to group
species into increasingly
generalized categories. A hierarchical system that needs to reflect phylogeny.
11
Q
What is the taxonomic rank?
A
Taxon
12
Q
What is a cladogram?
A
Phylogenetic tree with dichotomous branches (Rooted trees) indicates the sequence of appearance of taxa. No time frame incorporated in cladogram
13
Q
What is a bifurcation point or branching point indicate?
A
A common
ancestor which denotes related groups.
Where lineages diverge, speciation event
14
Q
Difference between cladogram and classification?
A
classification reflects
ramifications of the
cladogram.
15
Q
What does it mean when there are three branches, what is it called?
A
The branch forms a polytomy which is an unresolved pattern of divergence.
16
Q
What is cladistics?
A
Cladistics suggests that taxa should be based on shared derived characters like synapomorphy or homologous and not ancestral characteristics only validating monophyletic groups
17
Q
What are the groups associated with cladistics?
A
- Monophyletic group contains all and only the descendant from a common ancestor
- Non-monophyletic groups:
i) paraphyletic group: does not contain all the descendants from a common ancestor (fishes, reptiles as it includes birds)
ii) POLYphyletic group: contains descendants from several ancestors
18
Q
Did dinosaurs take care of their offspring?
A
Yes, because looking at clade, it includes birds and crocodiles which take care of their young too
19
Q
What is the branching point age?
A
fossils or by an
estimation of the rate of change from a molecular clock where length of branches can indicate time
20
Q
Principle of parsimony for cladistics?
A
the phylogeny must offer
the simplest explanation based on facts. Hypothesis with the fewest evolutionary steps is considered
the most parsimonious.
21
Q
What is ecology?
A
Scientific study of interactions
between organisms and between organisms
and their environment.
22
Q
What are the factors influencing the environment?
A
- Abiotic factors (physical or chemical) (salinity)
A. Light
B. Temperature
C. Wind
D. Rain - Biotic factors (limiting distribution due to relationship between species: parasitism, predation) ie. meningeal worm deer/moose, coyotes-> wolf competition gone and deforestation, climate change more north,
23
Q
What is the scope of ecology?
A
1) Organism ecology:
2) Population ecology
3) Community ecology
4) Ecosystem ecology
5) Landscape ecology
6) Global ecology
24
Q
What is organism ecology?
A
interactions between an organism and the environment (physiology, behavior)
25
What is the population ecology?
groups of organisms of one species living in the same area relating to the dynamics of population size fluctuations
26
What is community ecology?
groups of populations of different species in an area so how interactions between species like predation and competition affect the structure and organization of communities
27
What is ecosystem ecology?
community of organisms in an area and the interaction of organisms with physical factors like the study of energy flow or chemical cycling
28
What is landscape ecology?
The mosaic of connected ecosystems relating to the study of factors controlling of energy, materials and organisms across multiple ecosystems
29
What is global ecology?
study of the biosphere; sum of all ecosystems exploring the regional exchange of energy and materials and its global impact on the biosphere
30
What is the precautionary principle?
strategy to cope
| with possible risks where scientific understanding is yet incomplete
31
GLOBAL factors on species distribution (global ecology):
1. Sunlight intensity: high concentration of sun (energy) on equator while northern and southern pole is less warm because farther distance away from sun which spreads over larger surface
2. Earth’s tilt: species adapted to: extra tropical regions have seasons, whereas tropical regions have very little differences between seasons and days
3. Air circulation and precipitation: humid and and dry climates
4. Sea currents: currents influence climate and temperature on land
32
CONTINENTAL factors influencing species distribution:
1. Effect of large bodies of water on climate
| rainforests) humid area->dryer area (desert, dry forest
33
What is a biome
A terrestrial community where climate influences determining the geographic distribution and structure of biomes
34
List the terrestrial biomes:
1. Tropical forests
2. Desert
3. Temperate Grassland
4. Northern Coniferous Forest (taiga)
5. Temperate Broadleaf forest
6. Tundra
35
List aquatic biomes:
1. Lakes: either oligotrophic where poor in nutrients and rich in oxygen or eutrophic where rich in nutrients but poor in oxygen, seasonal turnover occurs where temperature of bottom of lake is constant where in winter ice forms a top lake top layer coldest, spring/autumn stable temp., summer layer of thermocline
2. Rivers: streams and wetlands
3. Estuary: tolerant to salinity
4. Intertidal zones: submitted to waves located in between high and low tides
5. Coral reefs: rich in species
6. Oceanic pelagic zones
7. Marine benthic zone
36
List biogeogrophic realms
1. Nearctic
2. Palearctic
3. Afrotropic
4. Indomalaya
5. Australasia
6. Neotropic
7. Oceania
8. Antarctic
37
Why are species found in some areas and not
| in other places? Wood turtle example.
I)Wood turtle is a freshwater species associated with wooden areas and streams
Il) cyprinodon diabolis found in one water hole that doesn’t have access to streams
38
What is a population?
a group of individuals of the
same species living in a given geographical
area.
39
What are biological cycles?
characteristics that
influence the survival and reproduction of
individuals of a population.
40
What is density in ecology?
the number of individuals by unit area or volume. The density is the result of a dynamic interaction between the processes of addition (immigration & birth) and elimination of individuals (emigration and death)
41
How is density determined?
1. By direct counting through aerial surveys or listening of songbirds
2. By sampling: capture-recapture
42
What conditions must capture-recapture respect?
1. marking has no health effect of the animal;
2. marked or non-marked individuals are distributed randomly in the population;
3. no immigration or emigration in the population;
4. chances of catching marked or unmarked individuals are equal.
43
Equation to estimate total population
X=N1N2/N2m
44
What is the impact of dispersion?
spacing of individuals inside geographical limits of the population
45
What are the types of dispersion?
1. Clumped
2. Uniform
3. Random
46
What is demography?
Quantitative study of populations and their variations over time (Birth/death rate) deals with cohort analysis, survivorship/growth of a species
47
What are the types of survival curves?
Type 1: low mortality at early-mid life
Type 2: constant death rate
Type 3: high mortality at early life
48
What are the models of population growth?
1. Exponential growth (J-curve)
| 2. Logistic growth (s-curve) where bump is carrying capacity
49
What are life history traits?
traits that affect an
organism’s schedule of reproduction and
survival resulting from natural selection
50
What are examples of life history traits?
1. Age at first reproduction or age at maturity.
2. Number of reproduction events
3. Number of offspring per reproductive event.
51
What is the trade off between reproduction and survival?
```
Frequency of reproduction
OR
number of offspring
OR
investment in parental care
```
52
What are types of biological cycles? And what are the trade offs
1. Semelparity: one reproduction event ie. salmon, agave
2. Iteroparity: several reproduction events ie. humans, bears
- optimal result: reduced brood size= higher survival, higher chance of breeding again following year
53
Population dynamics?
Factors that regulate population growth can be density dependent or independent: if birth/death rate do not change with population density makes population density independent
54
Examples of population dynamics
- Density-dependent: high density of big horn rams=low survival of lambs due to high food competition resulting in low quality milk, Territorial animals will restrict population growth (cheetah/gannets)
- predation fluctuations of moose and wolves on isle royale, hare and lynx where predation increases stress hormones in hares increasing number of stillborn
55
What is a metapopulation?
small local populations that occupy a particular area of an appropriate habitat (patches) for the survival of a population. Dynamics of emigration, immigration, extinction and recolonization between patches which is important in species conservation.
56
What are the layers the 3 levels of biodiversity?
1. Genetic diversity: emphasized on intra- & inter- populational genetic variation
2. Specific diversity: local extinction (extirpation) and hotspots of (terrestrial and marine) biodiversity
3. Ecosystem diversity: importance of keystone species, ecosystem engineers, disruption of interaction networks (food webs bottom-up/top-down models)
57
What are some threats to biodiversity?
1. Destruction of habitats (construction, deforestation, oil)
2. Introduction of new INVASIVE Species
3. Overexploitation
4. Global climate change: greenhouse effect, warming temperatures,
5. Decrease in albedo
58
Conservation of populations, how?
Extinction vortex lowers reproduction, fitness, survival and genetic variability
59
Sex ration of effective population equation
Effective population =
| 4(NmNf)/(Nm+Nf)
60
How is old is the universe
13700 Myr
61
How was earths age determined to be?
Through the application of radio metric dating technique based on the decay of radioactive isotope
4600 Myr
62
Explain origin of solar system
Following the action of
diverse forces spread over 100 Myr, a protoplanetary disk was formed around a protostar (the sun). The center of the nebula collapsed rapidly, eventually ignited and evolved into the Sun. In the outer part of the nebula, gravity caused matter to condense around density perturbations and dust particles. The rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings in a process that created successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets. The accretion of materials (protoplanet) will form planets one after the other on the outer rim. We estimate that the Earth was formed about 4,600 Myr ago.
63
Explain changes to young earth
Numerous asteroid and comet impacts. Important volcanic activity. Very high temperature. There was a progressive cooling, the formation of an atmosphere and of the oceans. After 500+ millions years of transformations, the terrestrial environment became more suitable for life. Atmosphere: water vapour, carbon dioxide, ammonium and methane.
64
What passed earth recently?
Comet ison and asteroid 2005 yu55
65
What are stromatolites
Similar disk-shaped structures in the rocks composed of sediments deposited by many Shark Bay, successive layers of Australia bacteria (mainly 3,000 years
cyanobacteria).
66
Explain the biochemical theory of life, and who created it.
By Oparin and Haldane.
➢ The primitive atmosphere was an environment in which organic compounds could be produced from simple inorganic
compounds.
➢ Energy sources: lightning and ultraviolet.
➢There would have been a series of
organic chemical reactions that would
have produced increasingly more complex molecules that would have acquired the
capacity to absorb nutrients, grow and
reproduce, etc.
67
Four stages of origin of life
1. Abiotic synthesis and the accumulation of small
organic molecules (monomers), such as amino acids or nitrogenous bases.
2. Joining of small molecules to form macromolecules, notably proteins and nucleic acids.
3. Packaging of macromolecules into photocells, droplets with membranes that maintained an internal chemistry different from that of their surroundings.
4. Origin of self-replicating molecules that eventually made inheritance possible.
68
How is the geological archives categorized?
Eons to eras to periods to epoch
69
Most notable mass extinction
1. Ordovician: long glacial period
2. Permian: volcanic activity in Siberia
3. Cretaceous: asteroid impact
70
Mass extinctions and temperature??
Mass extinctions are usually accompanied by increase in warm temperatures
71
What were some ecological impacts of the mass extinctions?
More predators
72
Adaptive radiation and mass extinction??
Mammals became multiplied and active during day, no longer nocturnal with extinction of large! Vertebrates.
Abundance of fauna on land was occupied mainly by reptilian mammals then dinosaurs then mammals
73
What is the first evidence of life
Stromatolites (fossilized bacterial mats)
74
Describe first organisms, and example
Anaerobic heterotrophs
Ex. Cyanobacteria used oxygen from water to fix carbon dioxide to synthesize organic compounds resulting in photosynthesis =oxygen revolution (ribbons of iron oxide(rust) evidence of oxidation)
75
What are the 3 domains?
1. Archaea
2. Bacteria
3. Eukaryotes
76
Explain a prokaryote
1. Unicellular
2. Circular DNA
3. Cell division is through: FISSION
77
What is a microbiome?
Bacterial flora on and in humans, play important role in our health and physiology in relation to parasitism commensalism and mutualism
78
What are important organelles of prokaryotes
1. Nucleoids
2. Bacterial chromosome
3. Chromosome
4. Plasmids
5. Plasma (respiratory) membrane
6. Thylakoids membranes
79
Shapes/names of prokaryotes
```
1. Spherical:
Coccus-, diplococci-, streptococci-, staphylococci-
2. Rod:
Bacillus-, streptobacillus-
3. Spirals:
Spiriles-, spirochaetes-
```
Except: haloqudratum walsbyi, halobacteria, thiomargarita namibiensis
80
Mobility of prokaryotes
Half of prokaryotes are mobile (with objective) with a speed 50x body length by rotary flagellum
81
Gram-positive vs gram-negative bacteria
Gram-positive bacteria:
Thick outer peptidoglycan layer and inner plasma membrane
Gram-positive bacteria:
Thin peptidoglycan layer between and outer and inner plasma membrane
82
Postulates of gastric ulcer discovery
Postulate 1:
The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy organisms.
Postulate 2:
The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture in the lab
Postulate 3:
The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism.
Postulate 4:
The microorganism must be re-isolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.
83
Types of autotrophs
```
1. Photoautoroph:
Energy: light
Carbon: CO2
2. Chemoautoroph:
Energy: inorganic chemicals
Carbon: CO2
```
84
Type of heterotrophs
```
1. Photoheterotroph:
Energy: light
Carbon: organic compounds
2. Chemoheterotroph:
Energy: organic compounds
Carbon: organic compounds
```
85
Describe archaea.
1. Unicellular
2. Circular DNA
3. Cell division is through: FISSION
4. EXtremophiles
86
What are adaptations of prokaryotes(bacteria and archaea)
1. Decomposers
2. Transformers
3. Bioluminescence
4. Toxicity: endotoxins and exotoxins
87
What are ways reproduction and genetic transfer of prokaryotes(bacteria and archaea)?
1. Fission: doubling of cell size to invaginate into two
2. Transformation: absorbing an environmental DNA molecule
3. Transduction: transferring DNA segment through virus
4. Conjugation: transfer of segment DNA through mating bridge
88
Describe eukaryotes
1. Multicellular
2. Circular DNA
3. Cell division is through: MITOSIS
4. Nuclear membrane
5. Linear and multiple chromosomes
89
Describe bacteria
1. Unicellular
2. Circular DNA
3. Cell division is through: FISSION
4. Peptidoglycan cell layer
90
Explain protistes.
Protists from a complex paraphyletic group. Protists cells contain a well-defined nucleus and several cellular organelles and a cytoskeleton. The serial endosymbiosis explains the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells. The evolution of multicellularity (several times) and sexual reproduction (probably only once) has occurred in this group. In general, asexual reproduction is the most common means of reproduction, sexual reproduction is a complementary method. Green algae (Charophytes) form the sister group of plants. The choanoflagellates contains the sister group of animals.
91
What are the 5 super groups of protists?
1. Excavata
2. Chromalveolata
3. Rhizaria
4. Archeaplastida
5. Unikonta
92
*Association Question:
| Diplomonad
Intestinal parasites with multiple flagella
| Responsible for beaver disease and diarrhea
93
*Association Question:
| Parabasalids
Flagellated parasites moving by undulation of the cell membrane
94
*Association Question:
| Euglenozoans
Parasite causing sleeping sickness or Chana’s disease acros Southern Hemisphere
95
*Association Question:
| Alveolates
Alveoli under the plasma membrane causing malaria, abundance of sickle cell anemia and plasmodium
96
*Association Question:
| Stramenopiles
Unicellular algae with unique glass-like wall from hydrated silica embedded in an organic matrix, a very solid structure, hair and hairless flagellum, important as diatoms absorbs 25% of atmospheric co2 and produce 25% O2, possible carbon sink
97
*Association Question:
| Ameobozoa
Species with pseudopodia lobes, cilia, heterophric
98
What is a heterotrophs
Engulfs/eats prey
99
*Association Question:
| Brown algae
Multicellular, complex, colour due to carotenoids in plastids, spores have flagella, independence(convergent) evolution from plants (thallus/stipes/blades)
100
*Association Question:
| Red algae
No flagellum, colour due to phycoerythrin masking chlorophyll’s green pigment, most abundant can live in deep water, commercialised (sushi)
101
*Association Question:
| Green algae
Chlorophytes and charophyte species living in water or soil, related to plants, colour due to chloroplasts,
102
*Association Question:
| Edicaran period
Great glacial period first fossils
103
*Association Question:
| Ediacaran
Species have radial and bilateral shape resembling jellyfish and leaves, diversified fauna, multicellular, soft bodied, large size, bacterial mats helped fossilisation
104
*Association Question:
| cambrian explosion
Appearance of most modern animal groups and strange fossils in short periods,
- Diversification of skeletal structures (calcium abundance)
- Atmospheric changes
- Mass extinction ediacaran fauna followed by an adaptive radiance.
- Complexification of the food chain
- More predators
105
*Association Question:
| Phanerozoic eon
Part of Cambrian period characterised by skeleton (harder structures)
106
Skeletal function
Mineral reserve
| Attachment site for muscles
107
What is the sister group of animals?
Choanoflagellates
108
What is an animal
Heterotrophic eukaryotes
Choanocytes
Sequential hermaphrodites
109
What is the most primitive animal
Sponges have no real tissue and are sequential hermaphrodites
110
What are the major changes of animal bodies?
Evolution:
1. Tissue
2. Bilateral symmetry/ radial symmetry
3. Embryonic layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
4. Body cavity
5. Specialised organs
6. Embryogenesis: radial cleavage, indeterminate cleavage, mesoderm formation, deutorosome’s mouth is at second opening
111
What is common ancestor of chordates?
Notochord
112
What is the origin of reptiles?
Carboniferous
113
What is the first fossils of terrestrial vertebrates (amphibians)?
Devonian
114
What is the first fossils of animals with jaws that colonised land?
Ordovician
115
What is the first fossils of chordates and craniates?
Cambrian
116
What is the first animal fossils?
Ediacaran
117
What do chordates and echinoderms share characteristics with?
Deuterosomes:
- radial and indeterminate cleavage
- development of coelom from archenteron
- formation of mouth at end of blastopore
118
Echinoderm?
Marine animals that move slowly or sessile, radial adult like starfish, urchins, sea cucumbers, sea lily, brittle star
119
What are the common derived characteristics of chordates?
1. Notochord
2. Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
3. Pharyngeal slits or clefts
4. Post-anal tail
120
Types of chordates
Cephalochordates
| Urochordates
121
What are gnathosomes?What are the derived features of gnathostomes?
A jawed vertebrate with two modified gill arches to create jaws and the support structure.
1. Big brain
2. Lateral line
3. Mineralization of endoskeleton
4. Jaws
122
```
Cartilaginous fishes (chondrichthyans)? Reproduction?
Groups?
```
```
Internal fertilization ;
1. Oviparous
2. Ovoviviparous
3. Viviparous
Made up of sharks, rays and chimaeras
```
123
Characteristic of bony fish (osteichthyes)?
Radiated fins
| Ossified endoskeleton
