Challenges to, and the fall of, the Fascist State 1935-46

Question 1

outline Mussolini’s general view of foreign policy

Answer 1

• a strong foreign policy was a key aim of M with a strong rhetoric + aggressive action - contrasted Lib Govt
• aimed to achieve ‘Great Power’ status for Italy - M formed strong alliances with Europe’s recognised powers - e.g. Britain - to strengthen Italy’s international standing
• BUT; there was the crucial issue of Italy’s weak military position - M’s grand claims were softened by reality

Question 1

outline Mussolini’s foreign policy aims

Answer 1

• his key goal was to make Italy a Great Power - in M’s words: “to make Italy great, respected and feared”
  aims:
• to promote fascism + Italian prestige abroad
• to gain Italy’s territorial claim + to revise the Versailles settlement/ to overcome the ‘mutilated victory’
• to consolidate Italy’s rule in Libya + expand Italian rule in Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Balkans (Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia) to make them an Italian ‘sphere of influence’ (expand Italy’s living space)

Question 1

how did Mussolini’s foreign policy aims compare with that of the Liberal Govts

Answer 1

• a desire for Great Power status, spending more on military + colonial expansion had all been features of liberal foreign policy
• M didn’t have new aims, but instead he pursued them more ambitiously + relentlessly

Question 1

outline M’s approach to achieving his foreign policy aims through 1920s-30s

Answer 1

whilst the goals didn’t change, the methods did:
- 1920s: whilst consolidating his power, M was more cautious - e.g. willing to compromise with Britain + League of Nations
- early/ mid 1930s: concerned about Hitlers rise to power + a more militant Germany, M looked to UK + Fr as allies to restrict Hitler’s FP
- mid/late 1930s: as F consolidated + became more aggressive, M’s FP conflicted with Br + LoN, leading to a growing relationship with Hitler

Question 1

outline the Corfu incident

Answer 1

• 27th Aug 1923: Italian general (Tellini) + 4 staff were assassinated in Greece whilst working on the Greek-Albanian boundary
• M blamed Greek Govt + demanded an apology with 50 million Lire for compensation or else Italy would invade Corfu (a Greek island)
• 31st Aug: Italy invaded Corfu + occupied the island

Question 1

outline the successes of the Corfu incident 1923

Answer 1

• Ms actions were celebrated among Italian nationalists
• Italy did receive the 50 million Lire from Greece that they had demanded
• M had shown he was a dynamic ruler willing to act decisively for Italy’s pride - positively contrasted with previous Liberal Govts

Question 1

outline the failures of the Corfu incident

Answer 1

• LoN demanded Italy end its occupation in Corfu - on 27th Sept, Italy left Corfu
• M faced opposition from the LoN + Br and Fr, M was more careful through the 1920s to not repeat this aggressive foreign policy
• M still hadn’t received the full apology from the Greek govt that he’d demanded

Question 1

what did Yugoslavia do in the 1920s in relation to foreign policy (Yugoslavia incident)

Answer 1

• in Jan 1924, Yugoslavia recognised the Italian speaking city of Fiume as being part of Italy in the 1924 Treaty of Rome

Question 1

outline the successes of the Yugoslavia incident

Answer 1

• given Fiume’s significance in respect to the historical memory of D’Annunzio’s occupation, this diplomatic success was a very popular achievement of M
• it showed M as a leader who could achieve what the Lib Govt could not

Question 1

outline the failures of the Yugoslavia incident

Answer 1

• Fiume’s significance was only symbolic; Yugoslavia no longer needed Fiume as they had constructed a greater port at Split
• in return for Fiume, Y made Italy recognise Yugoslavian rule in Susak
• as with Corfu, there were no real material gains/ achievements for Italy internationally

Question 1

outline the aftermath of M’s success over Fiume 1924

Answer 1

• M’s success over Fiume persuaded him that Yugoslavia could be pushed around
• in 1924, an Italian Chief, Zog, took power in Albania - by 1926, Albania was an Italian satellite state
• this extended Italian influence in the Balkans, at Yugoslavia’s expense

Question 1

outline the Locarno Treaties

Answer 1

• formed in 1925
• a conference held in Locarno consisting of Britain, France, Germany and Italy
• aimed to ease tensions in Europe + settled boarder disputes
• although Italy didn’t get concessions on its Austrian boarders, M was happy to work with Euro powers/ Italy being viewed as a major Euro power
• Italy’s involvement contributed to Mussolini’s popularity

Question 1

outline Libya as part of M’s foreign policy

Answer 1

• M continued the ‘Pacification of Libya’ - an attempt started by Liberals to end Libyan rebellion against colonial rule
• M used brutal methods - e.g. use of poison gas, mass executions + concentration camps - most details were kept out of the press
• Italy finally put down the Libyan rebellion in 1932

Question 1

_ of Libya’s population were either killed or starved to death during Mussolini’s pacification of Libya 1923

Answer 1

• 1/3 of Libya’s population were either killed or starved to death during Mussolini’s pacification of Libya 1923

Question 1

outline Italy’s general relations with Britain, France and Germany

Answer 1

• Mussolini’s relationship with Britain, France and Germany was complex + driven by their contrasted military + diplomatic positions + aims of FP
• the emergence of Hitler’s Germany reshaped international relations after 1933

Question 1

outline positive aspects of Britain and Italy’s relationship (1922-35)

Answer 1

• Italy had historically a good relationship with Britain - e.g. Stresa Front
• M was on good terms with Churchill + foreign secretary Chamberlain
• the re-evaluation of the Lira was dependent on British funding, so M had to make sure dealings with Br was diplomatic

Question 1

outline negative aspects of Britain and Italy’s relationship (1922-35)

Answer 1

• the Mediterranean was dominated by Britain + wouldn’t allow any challenge to this
• M tried to undermine Br power by supporting pro-Italian groups in Malta (Mediterranean territory)

Question 1

outline negative aspects of France and Italy’s relationship (1922-35)

Answer 1

• M unsuccessfully looked into an anti-French alliance with Germany, Spain and Hungary
• M saw Fr as a major rival in Africa + the Mediterranean
• French controlled Tunisia had a large Italian speaking population + was worried about Italian intentions

Question 1

outline a positive aspect of Germany and Italy’s relationship (1922-35)

Answer 1

• in his early years in power, Hitler was interested in building good relations with Italy as another Fascist country

Question 1

outline negative aspects of Germany and Italy’s relationship (1922-35)

Answer 1

• M was worried about H coming to power as he thought he’d pursue Anschluss with Austria which would threaten Italian influence in Balkans
• M called H a ‘horrible sexual degenerate’
• when Austrian Nazis attempted a coup in 1934, M blocked the coup + the unification of Germany and Austria

Question 1

outline the Stresa Front

Answer 1

• signed in April 1935
• Hitler announced German had been secretly rearmaming for 2 years - added to concern for the direction of H’s policies
• a meeting (called the Stresa Front) between Italy, Fr + Br declare their desire for peace, commitment to the LoN + disarmament
• this agreement was misunderstood + undermined so was weak

Question 1

outline a positive aspect of France and Italy’s relationship (1922-35)

Answer 1

• M worked with the French to create the Locarno Pact

Question 1

outline gaining domestic glory + prestige as a reason for the Abyssinian Invasion

Answer 1

• an aggressive foreign policy would satisfy those in the PNF who thought M needed to pursue a more ‘fascist’ route
• M believed a great victory would add to the dictatorships prestige
• the invasion would show the dynamism of fascism + making the Italian people more ‘warlike’

Question 1

outline helping the Italian economy as a reason for the Abyssinian Invasion

Answer 1

• planning for war helped the econ; producing arms, clothing, equipment etc fuelled Italian industry
• Abyssinia would provide an export market for Italian goods
• Abyssinia lacked the means to fight a modern war - they offered a cheap glory

Question 1

outline enhancing Italy's great power status as a reason for the Abyssinian Invasion

Answer 1

- M believed colonisation was part of Italy's historic destiny - e.g. the Roman Empire had dominated areas of North Africa + Mediterranean - a growing empire would enhance Italy's claim for great power status

Question 1

outline alleviating Italian's domestic issues as a reason for the Abyssinian Invasion

Answer 1

- domestic policies (e.g. corporate state) were producing disappointing results - a foreign success would distract public attention from problems at home - the invasion would help achieve autarky as Abyssinia would provide raw materials + area for agriculture

Question 1

outline the pretext for the Invasion of Abyssinia 1935

Answer 1

- Dec 1934: a skirmish (unpremeditated fighting) occurred between Italian + Abyssinian troops - M demanded an apology + Abyssinia requested a LoN investigation - M invaded in 1935

Question 1

outline the initial invasion of Abyssinia

Answer 1

- in Oct 1935 - M launched the invasion with 400,000 men, hoping for a quick + decisive victory - Italian advance was slow - a month into the invasion, M replaced head of army, De Bono, with Badoglio - Badoglio engaged in a brutal war against the Abyssinian army - e.g. use of mass aerial bombings + illegal use of chemical warfare - this brutal war killed 500,000 Abyssinians - by May 1936, they had seized the capital of Abyssinia, Addis Adaba

Question 1

outline the positive consequences of the Abyssinian Invasion for Italy

Answer 1

- Italian people, the royal family + the church supported the invasion + proclaimed M's greatness (boosted prestige) - M appeared to many as fulfilling the image of a 'new Caesar' who was expanding the Italian empire - Italy had established itself as a Great Power - the LoN economic sanctions were a propaganda coup for fascism - M was seen as standing up against the world for Italy

Question 1

outline 'Gold for Patria'

Answer 1

- LoN placed economic sanctions on Italy after the Abyssinian Invasion - e.g. limiting imports - this impacted Italy's economy negatively - Dec 1935: the royal fam launched the 'Gold for Patria' campaign - the Queen presented her wedding ring to be melted to help with the sanctions - thousands of women followed in giving their wedding rings to the Fascist cause - in return they were given steel rings symbolising their marriage to the nation

Question 1

outline the negative consequences of the Abyssinian Invasion for Italy

Answer 1

- the cost of this war was considerable - e.g. devalued the lira - public outcry against the Hoare-Laval pact prevented Italy occupying 2/3 of Abyssinia - this brutal war changed the world's perception of M/ Fascism - M wasn't seen as beneficial to Italy but now a threat to peace, e.g. use of mustard gas - LoN placed economic sanctions on Italy - BUT oil exports weren't banned, so Italy wasn't completely cut off - the hope that the colony would provide oil + raw materials to help achieve autarky were never met

Question 1

outline the Hoare-Laval Pact

Answer 1

- passed in Dec 1935 - was a secret agreement between Italy + Britain + France which would have given 2/3 of Abyssinia to Italy - however, public outcry in Br + Fr put an end to the agreement - both Br + Fr were desperate to avoid having Fascist Italy as an enemy

Question 1

after Italy's Invasion of Abyssinia, the Lira devalued by _% + govt debt increased to _ lire

Answer 1

- after Italy's Invasion of Abyssinia, the Lira devalued by 40% + govt debt increased to 16 billion lire

Question 1

outline the consequences of the Invasion of Abyssinia on international relations

Answer 1

- this invasion highlighted the weaknesses of the League of Nations - this encouraged Hitler's own ambitions which in turn disrupted the power balance in Europe - the IoA was the beginning of a split in Italy's relations with Br + Fr - it encouraged a belief that Italy's aggressive actions not only benefitted his domestic power, but challenged the old balance of power in Europe - this saw the Fascist regime pursuing a more radical direction in both domestic + foreign policy

Question 1

outline the international political situation in 1936

Answer 1

- from 1936, Italy's relationship with Germany was central to Italy's foreign policy - Mar 1936: H marched German troops into demilitarized zone of Rhineland - going against ToV - the LoN nor Br + Fr tried to stop Hitler, strengthening M's view that Br + Fr were weak - the Abyssinian war showed M the domestic benefits a successful foreign war had - July 1936: M gave Italian troops to the Spanish Civil War on the side of RW General Franco

Question 1

outline Italy's involvement in the Spanish Civil War

Answer 1

- July 1936: M gave Italian troops to the Spanish Civil War in support of RW General Franco - M sent 50,000 troops + 600 planes to fight in the SCW - Republican resistance collapsed in 1939 and General Franco was virtuous thanks to his RW allies - GB + FR hadn't given the Republicans the same level of support - they declared neutrality - however, the SCW had none of the positive consequences that M had been hoping for

Question 1

outline the consequences of the Spanish Civil War

Answer 1

- casualties were relatively high - 14,000 total casualties - the Italian army was significantly weaker by 1939 - the war led to severe disruptions in the Italian economy - costed 14 billion Lire + required an increase in taxes for the Italian people - Italian people lost support for M - Italy made no territorial gains - Italy's relationship with Britain + France continued to deteriorate - Western public opinion further turned against Italy

Question 1

outline the origins of closer Italian - German relations (1936-39)

Answer 1

- once the Hoare-Laval pact came out in the press, there was public outcry - public + political attitudes in Britain was becoming more anti-M - pushed him to Nazi G - despite Italy angering GB in SCW disputes, GB was still trying to come to an agreement with Italy - they signed the Gentleman's Agreement in 1937 which preserved the status quo in the Mediterranean

Question 1

outline the Rome-Berlin Axis

Answer 1

- agreed in 1936 - it was an informal agreement between Italy and Germany that agreed that they would support each other in their foreign policy - Hitler was happy to have Italy more economically dependent

Question 1

outline the Anti-Comintern Pact

Answer 1

- Nov 1937: Italy joined Germany + Japan in Anti-Comintern Pact - this was a declaration that these countries would work together against the Soviet Union (also aimed against Britain) - M then withdrew from the LoN in 1937

Question 1

when did M/ Italy leave the League of Nations + its significance

Answer 1

- Dec 1937 - this showed Italy's position as a nation who wished to overturn the ToV + confirmed an end to the Stresa Front

Question 1

outline Anschluss

Answer 1

- Italy's weakness was show when Hitler began the process of Anschluss in March 1938 without consulting M - showed Hitler to be the senior partner in their alliance - M agreed to Germany invading Austria. which was domestically unpopular + lost M prestige

Question 1

outline M's relations with Euro powers in 1938

Answer 1

- by 1938, M was still rejecting a full scale military alliance with Germany - at the Munich Conference, M worked with G and came to the conclusion that Br + Fr were weak + a future Europe should be dominated by Italy

Question 1

outline the Italian Invasion of Albania

Answer 1

- invaded in March 1939 - was an attempt to restore his domestic + international reputation + give the Italian economy a boost - victory was achieved without major fighting as it was already an Italian satellite state - this invasion showed the weakness of the Italian army as the army, navy and air force were unable to work together cohesively - this invasion was another step in pushing Italy away from Br + Fr - they guaranteed military support to Greece + Turkey

Question 1

outline the domestic situation in Italy in 1938

Answer 1

- 1938 was an unpopular year for M; - Italians were becoming more disillusioned with the regime - Ms domestic + foreign policy was causing concern - e.g. his quest for autarky meant that there were less consumer goods + living standards were in decline - Italian workers were transferred to G - was a highly unpopular policy + confirmed M's submission to G - M was now 55 and wasn't the youthful + dynamic leader he was trying to portray

Question 1

outline the Pact of Steel

Answer 1

- signed in May 1939 - Italy + Germany confirmed their alliance through this - this went against all military alliances - M knew his ambitions in the Mediterranean would need German support - Ciano (Italian foreign minister) was hesitant to sign as it was clear Italy wouldn't be ready for war until 1943 - but was told by Ribbentrop (G foreign minister) that G had no intention of waging war before this date - however, in Aug 1939, Ribbentrop + Hitler told Ciano that G was planning to attack Poland - Italy was now trapped in a very dangerous situation

Question 1

name events showing success/ Italian strength

Answer 1

- Abyssinian Invasion: increased Ms prestige - Anti-Comintern Pact 1937: cemented alliances between Italy, Germany + Japan - M leaving LoN: made him look strong - Munich Conference: made M look like a peacemaker

Question 1

name events showing failures/ Italian weakness

Answer 1

- Hitler's Anschluss 1938: made M look weak - Spanish Civil War 1936: led to economic hardship in Italy + no real benefit - M's quest for autarky: was a failure - Pact of Steel 1939: put Italy in a dangerous position - Rome-Berlin Axis 1936: made Italy economically dependent on Germany

Question 1

outline Italy entering the War

Answer 1

- Italy entered in June 1940 - Italy entered the war based on the idea of a 'parallel war': Italy would concentrate in the Mediterranean + North Africa, whilst Germany would concentrate on Northern, Central + Eastern Europe - M hoped for a short war that would be of little cost - at this stage most Italians didn't support the war + neither did H as he knew It. wanted territorial gain at Germanys expense

Question 1

outline France in WW2

Answer 1

- 17th June 1940: France requested an armistice with G, even before Italian troops had attacked Fr territory - M demanded various Fr territories (e.g. Corsica) but was wary of pushing Italian claims without doing any fighting - the armistice was signed on 22nd June, but M wasn't invited + only received 2 small towns

Question 1

outline North Africa in WW2

Answer 1

- Sept 1940: M launched a campaign to expand the Italian Empire in North Africa - Italy had small successes, but when GB counter attacked in Jan 1941, 30,000 Br soldiers defeated 250,000 Italian soldiers - by May 1941: Italy had lost Eritrea, Somalia + Abyssinia - 380,000 Italian troops surrendered - a huge blow to Fascist propaganda (a proclaimed nation of people willing to die for il Duce) - the British advance into Libya was only stopped by German troops in Feb 1941, thus ending the idea of a parallel war

Question 1

outline North Africa in WW2: Battles of Alamein

Answer 1

- the Battles of Alamein were the turning point of the North African campaign in WW2 - Axis (Germany + Italy) were decisively defeated by GB; - the battles were in July - Nov 1942 in which Rommel + Montgomery (GB) won 2 battles - Libya was lost and the Allies were preparing for an invasion of Italy

Question 1

outline The Mediterranean in WW2

Answer 1

- the Mediterranean had been a dominant focus for M throughout his dictatorship - but Italian strategy proved confusing + inadequate - M had no consistent strategy + there was poor coordination between the Navy + air force - e.g. Italian planes bombed their own ships in July 1940 - the Italian navy was crippled by Br forces with half its fleet lost - the G navy prevented Br from having control of the Med

Question 1

outline the disaster in Greece in WW2

Answer 1

- M launched an attack on Greece on 28th Oct 1940 as he was worried about H's interest in the Balkans so looked to solidify Italy's position in the region - he didn't tell H that he was launching the attack - the invasion was a disaster: M assumed Greece only had 30,000 soldiers, and so attacked from Albania with 60,000 men - Greece actually had 300,000 soldiers - M, as Minister for War, didn't coordinate the navy or air force - the weather conditions were very wet + freezing in the mountains - Italian uniforms weren't suited for this - little progress was made + after 6 months M called on the help of German forces, who humiliatingly defeated the Greeks in a few weeks - this Greek campaign made Italy a laughing stock around Europe, and by Spring 1941, it was the Germans who took over Greece + Yugoslavia

Question 1

outline Italy's general performance in WW2

Answer 1

- by 1943, Italy had failed to achieve any of the aims set out by Mussolini's 'parallel war' - the Italian military had been shown to be weaker than the Greek's - which wasn't considered a major European power - this majorly undermined faith of Italian people in the fascist regime + Mussolini himself - the Germans now viewed Italians with more contempt

Question 1

outline military unpreparedness as a reason for Italy's military defeats

Answer 1

- the army was small + outdated + untrained: e.g. - Jun 1940: less than 800,000 men were ready to fight - were equipped with rifles + artillery from WW1 - no thought had been put in to large scale armament production during wartime - Italy thought it would be a short war - Italy only had 1,000 inadequate planes, and 1,500 armoured cars + tanks - this was a major problem as WW2 was a 'mechanised war' (war relying on motorised + armoured vehicles)

Question 1

outline inadequate leadership of the military as a reason for Italy's military defeats

Answer 1

- Generals were steeped in defensive traditions of WW1 + were unsure of the usefulness of air force - large sums of money had been spent on rearmament, but much of it was spent on inadequate weaponry or luxurious living quarters for officers - there were no unified lines of command + a limited hierarchy - led to lack of coordination

Question 1

outline inadequate leadership from Mussolini as a reason for Italy's military defeats

Answer 1

- Mussolini underestimated the length of the war, thinking it would be over by Sept 1940 - he was only prepared for a short war - as Minister for War, Navy + Air Force, M made all strategic decisions (when + where to attack) + he often made decisions w/o consulting military experts - he made disastrous + ill informed decisions - M often promoted officers more for their obedience + flattery than for their merit/ ability

Question 1

outline economic weakness as a reason for Italy's military defeats

Answer 1

- autarky hadn't been achieved + Italy was not self sufficient - their economy wasn't geared towards war production - the USA could produce more aircraft in a week than Italy could in a year - Italy depended mostly on German coal for fuel due to a shortage of oil imports + many Italian factories lacked raw materials - Italian steel production decreased by 20% between 1940-42 - meant that losses, e.g. in tanks + aircraft, couldn't be replaced - economic weakness was an underlying factor for the failure of Italy in WW2

Question 1

in _, Fiat could only produce _ vehicles per month compared to _ per month in _

Answer 1

- in 1941, Fiat could only produce 2,500 vehicles per month compared to 4,800 per month in 1938

Question 1

why was there growing unrest in Italy by 1943

Answer 1

- rationing - food + clothing shortages - longer working hours - impact of defeat (loss of support for M, dead soldiers, economic instability)

Question 1

outline antifascist groups as evidence of growing unrest from 1943

Answer 1

- the illegal Communist newspaper 'L'Unita' reappeared in 1942 - an antifascist group, the 'Christian Democrats' formed made up of members of Catholic Action + was backed by Catholic Church in 1942 - for the first time in politics, Socialists + Catholics + Communists agreed to work together against Fascism

Question 1

outline strikes as evidence of growing unrest from 1943

Answer 1

- March 1943: 100,000 workers striked in Turin + Milan - Communists helped organise strikes + Govt gave in and gave those forced to evacuate their homes compensation - communists s+ socialists being able to influence Govt policy showed the weakness of the govt

Question 1

outline the Allied Invasion of Sicily

Answer 1

- May 1943: Axis (Italy, Germany, Japan) troops in North Africa surrendered to Allied troops + with Tunisia occupied, it offered a route to invade Sicily - 9th July: allied forces landed in Sicily - they faced little opposition + occupied half the island in 1 week - 19th July: M met with H to request troops + arms to help defend Italy but this was rejected. allied planes bombed Rome - killing 1,500. - by Aug 1943, the Allies had control of Sicily

Question 1

outline the Conservative elite as evidence of growing unrest from 1943

Answer 1

- from the end of 1942, the Vatican, military leaders, police and industrialists began to consider how Mussolini can be deposed + Italy removed from WW2 - they wanted to overthrow M + take Italy out of the war without provoking Hitler/ Germany who could occupy Italy

Question 1

outline the Allied invasion of Italy (1943 Jan-13th Sept)

Answer 1

- in Jan 1943, Allied leaders decided to launch an invasion of Italy - a key problem for the Allies was that Badoglio had begun negotiating Italy's surrender on Sept 3rd by promising they'd hand over all military resources + 60,000 soldiers - however, by 8th Sept, they hadn't done this, and so Italian troops were confused who to fight for - the Italian army disintegrated as a result - Sept 9th: German forces invaded Italy - the King + Badoglio fled South, leaving Italy in chaos. their lack of action allowed Italy to be quickly captured by Germans - 13th Sept: Italy declared at war with Germany

Question 2

outline the Allied invasion of Italy (1943 13th Sept-May 1945)

Answer 2

- 13th Sept: Italy declared at war with Germany - the Allies' campaign in Italy was long and brutal and only ended when the war ended - by 2nd May 1945, all of Italy was under Allied control

Question 2

what were the 4 key objectives of the allied invasion of Italy

Answer 2

1) to remove Italy from WW2 2) to control the Mediterranean 3) to force Germany away from the Eastern Front 4) to force Germany away from Northern France

Question 3

what is meant by the '45 days'

Answer 3

- the 45 days were the time in between Mussolini's dismissal and his escape by German aerial raid

Question 3

outline the creation of the Salo Republic

Answer 3

- Aug 1943: M was transferred to a remote prison - Sept: he was rescued in a German aerial raid + brought back to Germany - M met with Hitler who demanded that M return to head a fascist Govt - The Italian Social Republic/ the Salo Republic (RSI) was formed in Dec 1943

Question 4

outline the Salo Republic (RSI)

Answer 4

- the new regime was a Nazi puppet state that controlled Northern Italy with M as its head - had no clear central authority, e.g. no central govt, but was dependent on German support - lasted only 600 days - it was a brutal regime: had a fearful militia of 50-140,000 men, had a navy + air force - all those who voted for Grandi's motion were sentenced to death + 5 fascists, e.g. Ciano (was M's son in law), were executed - by 1944, a brutal civil war was waged in the north between Italian partisans + German/ RSI forces

Question 5

to combat the partisan civil war in _, Mussolini made a policy that for every German soldier killed, _ Italians would be executed

Answer 5

- to combat the partisan civil war in 1944, Mussolini made a policy that for every German soldier killed, 10 Italians would be executed

Question 6

outline the Kingdom of the South

Answer 6

- in the South, the King established the royal govt; the 'Kingdom of the South'/ the Allied Military Government (AMG) - this govt had no real power + was under control of the Allies - the conservative elites kept their positions in national/ local govt to make sure the country could still run in the same form - the K was encouraged to include antifascists in his Govt and replaced Badoglio with the antifascist Liberal Bonomi - many Italians in the South lived in terrible conditions + relied on Black Market to survive - thus opposed the Allies

Question 7

outline the death of Mussolini

Answer 7

- with the Allies capturing major areas of Northern Italy in Apr 1945, M tried to flee to Switzerland - he was blocked form leaving by partisans and he was arrested - him, his mistress (Claretta Petacci) and 12 other captured fascists were executed on the 28th April 1945 and their bodies were displayed in Milan - it was an undignified end for Il Duce - but fighting continued - the war ended on 2nd May when Hitler's death was announced

Question 8

M was able to perform one last speech in _ _ that won a standing ovation + cheering

Answer 8

- M was able to perform one last speech in Dec 1944 that won a standing ovation + cheering

Question 9

outline Italy post war

Answer 9

- after the war, Italy was in a terrible state - the economy + infrastructure was ruined + many Italians lacked clean food and water - millions of Italians were unemployed and the cost of living had significantly increased - 500,000 Italians died in the war - the 30,000 partisan revenge killings, mostly in the North, exacerbated the north-south divide

Question 10

outline Italy's post war government

Answer 10

- Italy's first post war government was established in June 1945 - it consisted of Socialists, Communists, and Christian Democrats - the King was unable to regain his authority and Italy voted to become a republic in 1946 - basically every area in the south voted to keep the king and every area in the north voted to become a republic - showed the extent of the divide

Question 10

the cost of living in 1945 was _x higher than in _

Answer 10

- the cost of living in 1945 was 23x higher than in 1938

Question 11

outline Italy's post war electoral system

Answer 11

- Italy's new electoral system was based on proportional representation - for the first time, women were allowed to vote - in the constituent assembly vote, the Christian Democrats won securing about 50% of the seats, with Socialists following up with 21%, and Liberals only securing 7% - the senate was elected, the role of the president was largely symbolic, and the PM was elected by PLT - the new electoral system was anti-fascist in construction and definition - a weak Govt that wouldn't be able to repeat the fascist years

Question 11

Italy voted to become a republic in _ _ by _ million votes to _ million

Answer 11

- Italy voted to become a republic in June 1946 by 12 million votes to 10 million

Question 12

outline Italy's land claims + compensation post-WW2

Answer 12

- Italy lost its lands in Africa, gave Fiume back to Yugoslavia - paid compensation to Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece and Abyssinia

Question 13

outline Italy's post-WW2 constitution

Answer 13

- the new constitution established a liberal democracy with guaranteed civil + political freedom - the monarchy was replaced by a head of state - Mussolini's Lateran Pacts were included in the constitution

Question 14

what is another word for a Partisan

Answer 14

- a resistance fighter

Question 15

outline the similarities between the Republic of Salo and the Kingdom of the South

Answer 15

both organisations had limited support from Italians: - RSI: the Republican Fascist Party had only 480,000 members compared to the 2.6 million of the PNF in 1939 - KoS: was limited Allied support from public due to poor living conditions both were under rule from another country - RSI: Germany - KoS: Allies (Britain, America, France, China, Soviet Union)

Question 16

outline the differences between the Republic of Salo and the Kingdom of the South

Answer 16

the operation of both their Govts were very different: - RSI: fear and repression were still used - e.g. those who voted for Grandi's motion were condemned + executed - KoS: didn't use terror methods to control their population

Question 17

outline the nature of M's foreign policy actions

Answer 17

- M's foreign policy actions were opportunistic and erratic + aimed to maximise his prestige rather than material gain for Italy - weren't rationally considered - contributed to failure

Question 18

outline the disagreements about the Stresa Front agreement

Answer 18

- M saw this agreement as Br + Fr supporting Ms imperialist goals in Africa (in return for Italy's anti German stance) - Fr + Br didn't see it this way - Br also undermined the Stresa Front when signing the Anglo-Naval Agreement in June 1935 - the Stresa Front consequentially collapsed

Question 19

name evidence of M trying to demonstrate his shared interests with GB + FR

Answer 19

- Italy remained a member of the League of Nations - M signed the Locarno Treaties 1925 - M signed the Kellogg-Briand pact 1928 - he reached an agreement with GB about colonial boarders in North Africa

Question 19

outline the Kellogg-Briand pact

Answer 19

- signed in 1928 - it outlawed war as a means of resolving conflict between countries - 9 powers signed the act, with a further 56 nations signing it after - BUT; the pact carried little weight with the powers, and M dismissed it in the Italian PLT shortly after

Question 20

outline Italy + German relations in the 1930s

Answer 20

- relations between I-G were tense when H came to power in 1933 - e.g. M called for a Four-Power Conference (I, G, GB, FR) when H pulled G out of the Disarmament Conference + the League of Nations - M was concerned that G would try to seize Austria - he sent 40,000 troops to the A border to discourage H taking action

Question 21

outline the Stresa Front

Answer 21

- H's announced rearmament in 1935 - e.g. air force, military conscription - M called a meeting with GB + FR to discuss this in Apr 1935 - all 3 powers criticised G rearmament as it breached the ToV, they re-affirmed their support for the 1925 Locarno Treaties, they agreed to support independent Austria - this was the height of M's cooperation with GB + FR

Question 22

outline the international impact of the Abyssinian Campaign

Answer 22

- tensions grew between Italy + GB and FR - they didnt want to push Italy toward Nazi G, but wanted to prevent further aggression - they supported limited sanctions against Italy - from 1936, their relationship was damaged beyond repair

Question 23

what were the 3 key reasons for why Mussolini and Hitler became closer by the end of the 1930s

Answer 23

1) the worsening relationship between Italy, Britain and Franc + the breakdown of the Stresa Front 2) the Italian economy became more dependent on Germany from 1936 3) by the end of the 1930s, M was becoming more impressed by H personally

Question 24

what were the 3 reasons why Mussolini chose neutrality in 1939-40

Answer 24

1) the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 1939; a secret agreement between Germany + the USSR to divide Poland + avoid war for 10yrs - M saw this as a betrayal of their pact against Communism 2) M was playing a waiting game - he didn't want to commit to the losing side of the war 3) Italy wasn't ready for war - Italy's economy, industry + military were underprepared for war - e.g. modernization processes were incomplete

Question 25

what were key reasons for why Mussolini joined WW2 in June 1940

Answer 25

- M feared Italy becoming a second-rate nation in a German dominated Europe - M believed in war + violence as a way to achieve political goals + glorify fascism - M was a victim of his own propaganda + had to maintain the image of a man of action - it seemed as if the Allies were close to defeat, and M wanted to make territorial gains

Question 26

outline Italian political tensions from WW2

Answer 26

- from late 1942, disillusion + opposition to Fascism grew; - workers; protested openly about their working conditions - e.g. the longer hours, worse conditions, increased bombing raids on factories - strikes from March 1943 showed organized opposition - declining living standards, e.g. food shortages, price rises, gave opposition a chance to grow - e.g. Catholics + Socialists - most saw M as the issue + cause of failures in the war

Question 27

outline the deposition of Mussolini

Answer 27

- by 1943, there was opposition to M from the King Emmanuel III, military generals + from within the Fascist Grand Council - was significant as they were selected for their loyalty - in 1943, M held a meeting with the FGC in hope of getting their support - but leading Fascists, e.g. Grandi, aimed to remove M - needed K's support as only he could remove M - they aimed to persuade FGC members to support Grandi's resolution that they had lost confidence in M + the King would become the head of PLT + FGC - the meeting, in July, was held in which Grandi's resolution was supported with 19 to 7 votes - the King announced that Badoglio would replace M as PM - M was then arrested

Question 28

outline reasons for why the power of the Salo Republic was very limited

Answer 28

- it lacked public support (e.g. from Conservative elite) due to lost faith in M + Fascists - the Republic heavily depended on German support - M was treated as a puppet leader by the Germans - M had lost his charisma + was suffering from ill health - by 1944, partisans posed a serious threat to German forces + the Salo Republic

Question 29

outline the 1946 Referendum

Answer 29

- after the war, King Victor Emmanuel III was unable to regain his authority + he abdicated in April 1946 - he hoped his song, Umberto, could revive popularity for the Monarchy before the referendum in May - but, Italians voted 52% to 48% to abolish the monarchy + establish a republic - thus, Italy became a republic in 1946 - but public opinion was split between North (Republic) + South (Monarchy)

Question 30

outline the elections of 1946

Answer 30

- for the 1st time, the electoral franchise was extended to women for a vote for the Constituent Assembly - the Christian Democrats won 35% , with Communists, Socialists and Liberals following up

Question 31

outline an example of inadequate military leadership from Mussolini

Answer 31

- M asked one of his generals if there was a plan in place to defend Sicily - despite the fact that M put himself in charge of the whole military campaign (showed his incompetency)