Challenges to Ottoman power in the early 19th century

Question 1

Selim III

Answer 1

• sultan from 1789 to 1807
• introduced a comprehensive reform scheme, the nizam-i-jedid
• nizam-i-jedid: made up of young peasants from Anatolia (lot of janassaries were from there too)
• Unlike Muhammad Ali in Egypt who was able to depose his own independent minded military corps, the Mamluks, Selim was unable to overcome the entrenched power of existing corporate groups opposed to increases in centralized power.
• removed by janassaries and assassinated

Question 2

Mahmud II

Answer 2

• 30th sultan from 1808-1839
• extensive military, admin., and fiscal reforms (culminated into Tanzimat that his sons carried out)
• succeeded Selim III
• marked first breakaway from Ottoman Empire (Greece)
• abolished Janissary corps in 1826

Question 3

Greek Revolt 1821

Answer 3

• (1821–1832), rebellion of Greeks within the Ottoman Empire
• a struggle which resulted in the establishment of an independent kingdom of Greece (under european powers’ protection)
• rebellion originated with Philikí Etaireía (“Friendly Brotherhood”), a patriotic conspiracy
• revolt began in March 1821 when Alexandros Ypsilantis, the leader of the Etairists, crossed into Turkish land with troops but was defeated
• March 25, 1821: (the traditional date of Greek independence), sporadic revolts against Turkish rule had broken out in the Peloponnese

Question 4

Syria

Answer 4

• all Greek Orthodox Christians were considered as potentially disloyal
• province of Syria: modern day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel
• the Ottoman gov’t issued an order that all Christians should be disarmed (feared they would help Greeks)
• jerusalem: city’s christian (including greek orthodox) pop. was forced to give up their weapons, wear black, and help fortify the city
• Mahmud II promised Ali concessions in Syria

Question 5

Ibrahim Pasha

Question 6

George Canning

Answer 6

• Foreign minister
• Adopts a pro-Greek policy (unlike predeccessor) -> strong support
• Large loan is raised for the Greek cause in London (1823)
• Results in alliance b/twn Britain, Russia, and France
• Negotiated treaties of London

Question 7

Nicholas I

Answer 7

• Tsar (1825-1855)
• Supported Greeks and threatened to intervene, ultimately convincing France and Britain to join Pro-Greek power squad with bad boy Russia
• Byron, Canning, and Nicholas I led to intervention of Great Powers in the Greek revolution, leading to Greek success and independence

Question 8

Muhammad Ali in Egypt

Answer 8

• Barrier to controlling Egypt (province of O.E.)= the Mamluks
• 1700s-1800s: Egypt was run by the Mamluk beys, who competed w/ each other (no strong central power)
• 1798: French invade, disrupting balance of power
• 1801: M.A. arrives in a regiment to repel the French, working w/ the O.E.
• Allies w/ local leaders to gain support of public
• Ulama (religious scholars) demand Ottoman gov’t to appoint M.A. pasha
• May 1805: Becomes viceroy (wali) of Egypt (popular support helped crush his opposers)

Question 9

Mamluks

Answer 9

• Feudal owners of Egypt (land= source of income and power)
• 1811: M.A. invites Mamluk leaders to a celebration at his palace: he orders the gates to be closed and massacres them all
• M.A. sends his troops t/o the rest of Egypt to squash remaning Mamluks

Question 10

Industrial Reforms

Question 11

Agricultural reforms

Answer 11

• Introduced new form of cotton (Jumel)
• Cash crop, Egypt made tons of money from it (european markets bought it up)
• improved irrigation system -> produced more crops
• 1815: nationalized all land so that he owned all the production in 1815

Question 12

Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi 1833

Answer 12

Russia (officially the Russian Empire) signed this mutual alliance with Turkey (Ottoman Empire) to help each other if war broke out

-Turkey agreed to close the Dardanelles to all non-Russian warships if Russia asked them to