Chap 10, 12, 13, 14, 15 Flashcards
(275 cards)
1
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chapter 10
A
stress and health
2
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Health psychology
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subfield of psychology
• how behavior, cognition, and physical health are interrelated
> causes and treatment of physical illness
> maintenance of health
3
Q
stress
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physical and psychological response
4
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Stressor
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specific events or chronic pressures
5
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Types of stressors
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can be positive or negative
• catastrophic events (threatening life events, longer-lasting)
• major life events (married, divorce)
• daily hassles (work, exams, projects, finances)
6
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Stress ratings (CUSS)
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a significant indicator of future illness (can affect immune system)
7
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Distinction between acute and chronic stressors:
A
• ACUTE stressors: an event with a due date or clear indication of the beginning, middle, and end (immediate, short-lived) • CHRONIC stressors: worry and anxiety → life-long (allostatic load: cumulative impact) Stress appraisals (perception):
8
Q
Perceived stress
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a subjective evaluation of stress in response to events, depending on appraisal (related to how we cope, challenge→ motivate (adapted), looming→ less motivated)
9
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Stress appraisal theory
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appraisal of an event and our role in it shape our emotional experience of it
10
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Psychological reactions:
A
• Primary appraisal: interpretation of stimulus as stressful or not
• Secondary appraisal: can stressor be handled? (or not?) can we cope?
> negative appraisal = threat (overwhelmed, feeling of not having control) inc BP
> positive appraisal = challenge (positive outcomes) motivating factor
11
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Sympathetic-adreno-medullary (SAM) axis
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a physiological system that governs the body’s IMMEDIATE response to a stressful event (fight or flight response)
• mobilizes the sympathetic nervous system
12
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Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
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a physiological system that governs the body’s PROLONGED/CHRONIC response to a stressful event (during resistance phase, after SAM) - more studied (cortisol released, increase BS (help with energy), suppressing the immune system)
13
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Stress effects on the immune system
A
stressors – hormones (glucocorticoids) flood the brain
• immune system less effective b/c fewer lymphocytes
• release of cytokines
• psychoneuroimmunology
> study of how the immune system responds to psychological variables
> Susan Lutgendorf (tumor environment, effects of stress on cancer, affects immune system and survival rates. Social support as well)
14
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Stress effects on health - heart and circulatory system:
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• atherosclerosis
> main cause of coronary heart disease
15
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Intensity, drive, anger, and hostility linked to
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increased rates of heart disease
16
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Diathesis-stress model:
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(predisposition) - the way you think about things and frame things
17
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Differential sensitivities hypothesis
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the idea that some people have a genetic predisposition (makes them more likely) to be more strongly affected by variation in their environment
18
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Stress effects on health - aging
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stress significantly accelerates the aging process (high levels of cortisol have an effect on memory) (telomeres)
19
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Telomeres
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caps at the end of each chromosome that protect the ends of chromosomes and prevent them from sticking to each other (every time cell divides caps become shorter, cortisol shortens them even more)
• shorter telomeres: increased risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, depression
20
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Perceived control:
A
• more effective coping
• no control = chronic stress (lack of perceived control)
> learned helplessness = perceived lack of control
21
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Example of perceived control → 3 groups of dogs:
A
Group 1 put in harnessed (kept from moving) - control group
Group 2 was given electric shocks at random times, pressing bar → stopped shock
Group 3 yoked group - connected to the experiences in group 2 (dog in group 2 got shocked, dog in group 3 got shocked) group three didn’t have the ability to stop shock (overtime those dogs didn’t have the ability to stop shock - had learned they couldn’t do anything to stop it)
22
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Problem-focused coping
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approaching stressful situations with a belief that one can proactively solve the problem (people who do think they have control, find a way to cope)
23
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How we cope:
A
- How we perceive the stress
- Sense of control over the stress
- How people are going to evaluate us
24
Q
Coping with stress
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(personality/ traits) having a GOOD SENSE OF HUMOR does seem to provide health benefits
25
People with a good sense of humor tend to:
* be more optimistic (see the glass as half full)
* have higher self-esteem
* be less likely to suffer from depression
* see stress as more of a challenge
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religiosity & spirituality
Lower pain, and heart disease, and better psychological health (We have a bigger sense of purpose or meaning in our life by having a sense of something that is greater than one’s self) - social support
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Finding meaning to cope with stress
spending 20 - 30 mins a day writing about a stressful event can have benefits (helps with PTSD) - helps with psychological functioning
28
Writing about stressful experiences seems to trigger better immunological functioning by:
* facilitating the growth of T cells
| * cuing antibodies that help fight off viruses
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Social support to cope with stress
having the network available linked to better survivorship
30
Social support
the degree to which people believe they can turn to other people for information, help, advice, or comfort
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Social support can help us maintain healthier habits:
* supportive spouses might more effectively help their partners
* can buffer us from stressful experiences
* can allow us to feel less alone in our stress
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Bodily techniques help manage stress:
* mediation/mindfulness: the practice of intentional contemplation (focusing on present)
* and pets (good for elders - stress can be reduced by petting dogs (dec BP, inc oxytocin (social bonding hormone), inc endorphins (natural opiate-like drugs))
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Stress management-mindfulness:
* decrease negative mood and rumination (negative thoughts)
* decrease sympathetic reactivity and amygdala activation to negative stimuli
* increase patterns of left frontal activation
* self-compassion (self-care)
* reducing chronic pain, anxiety, dec reactivity to stress
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Self-compassion
being non-judgmental or too hard on yourself (accept yourself)
diet, exercise, and sleep are extremely important to maintaining a healthy lifestyle
• stress makes us crave high energy/carb foods)
• the amount of exercise and BMI
• getting enough sleep
> disruptive sleep can also be a source of stress
> increased activation of stress systems
> the perception of stressful events can be altered
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chapter 11
development
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Key Questions in Studying Human Development
1. Does development happen in stages or continuously?
| 2. What are the effects of nature and nurture on development?
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Developmental psychology
the scientific study of how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally from infancy through old age
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Does development happen in stages or continuously?
Qualitative versus quantitive development (what you’re doing and what you’re looking at) (transitioning into what you’re looking at/ what is facilitating transition)
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What are the effects of nature and nurture on development?
Gene x environment interactions (nature and nurture always interacting from birth)
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Two challenges when studying development:
1. Measures need to be based on age and the abilities of a given age (what can infants do based on a given stimulus)
2. Choosing the right research design (cost and benefits)
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Cross-sectional
slices of the brain that you’re looking at (looking at an age range and taking slivers of age range to see abilities) (most ideal)
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Longitudinal study
study/follow the same group of infants until a certain amount of time
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Sequential study
same age ranges, but follow them a few times throughout their life, to capture quantitive changes
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Cross-sectional advantages:
* covers a wide age range
* can help understand which abilities are developing at certain points in the lifespan
* good for comparing groups close together in age
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Cross-sectional disadvantages:
* cohort effect
* not as good when comparing groups that differ more dramatically in age
* age doesn’t always equal skill
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Longitudinal advantages
allows us to be extremely confident that people are indeed changing over time
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Longitudinal disadvantages:
* time and resources
* patients withdrawing from the study
* examines one generation or cohort
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Sequential advantages:
* high confidence that observed changes are due to development
* observations can generalize across cohorts
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Sequential disadvantages:
* costly
| * takes time
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Germinal stage:
* egg is fertilized and cells begin to divide
* conception to two weeks
* zygote
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Zygote
a fertilized egg
| • blastocyst
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Embryonic stage
2 to 8 weeks // embryo
| • placenta
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Fetal stage
9th week and until birth
| • fetus
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Brain development
- CNS
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Neural tube
CNS developed from / tubular structure formed early in the embryonic stage
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Three identifiable parts of brain:
Brainstem, cerebellum, spinal cord
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Brain Development:
two types of cells form - neurons and glia
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Gila
guide wires - guide migration of neurons to outer layers (inner to outside)
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Neural migration:
Gila create guide wires
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After migrating they form
synaptogenesis so electrical communication can form chemical communication
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Nervous system organization
* involves several important processes:
* neural proliferation
* synaptic pruning
* myelination of axons
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Neural proliferation
new synaptic connections
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Synaptic pruning
the trimming back of unnecessary synapses according to a “use it or lose it” principle”
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Myelination of axons
efficiency and speed of processing of neural signals by fatty tissue insulating the axons in myelin
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Different timing of brain maturation (finish product):
* areas that process sensory information
* motor areas
* areas for language/spatial ability
* frontal lobes
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Disruptions to early development:
* genetic and chromosomal problems - down syndrome
| * parental environmental issues - teratogens
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Down syndrome
a developmental disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
• affects 1 in 691 babies born each year in the US
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Teratogens:
* monster producing (alc mother consumes)
| * environmental agents that can interfere with healthy fetal development
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(Teratogens-alcohol) fetal alcohol syndrome:
a developmental disorder that affects children whose mothers consumed alcohol during pregnancy
• intellectual disability
• poor attention
• slow physical growth
• overactivity
*also, marijuana, cigarette smoking, other drugs
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Early capabilities in the newborn:
reflexes and preferences
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Reflexes
automatic patterns of motor responses that are triggered by specific types of sensory stimulation
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Preferences
taste/smell/voice & ‘face-like’ stimuli
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‘I Was Born Ready’ → Early Capabilities in the Newborn:
CLAIM: newborns imitate faces (newborns vision is foggy)
• infants seem to seek out others and do as they do
• BUT: research has shown that arousal and interest relates to infant tongue protrusion (viewing bright lights and music) is it imitation or arousal
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Paradigm to test infants
habituation & dishabituation (high-amplitude sucking behavior and looking behavior) - assessing infants
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Habituation
a form of non-associative learning that is shared across a range of species
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Dishabituation
renewed interest in new stimulus
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Motor development
(born with reflexes - then voluntary motor control starts)
• motor skills develop according to two general rules
> cephalocaudal: motor skills emerge from head to the feet
> proximodistal: emerge from the center of the body the outward, (torso → limbs → hands)
Interindividual variability in the onset of when different abilities emerge - experience and other factors play a role (opportunities they get for practice)
78
Piaget
grandfather of cognitive development - stage like view of development
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Cognitive development - Piaget’s theory:
schemes, assimilation, accommodation
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Schemes
concepts or mental models/ representations
| Develop via experience with the world and refine them through further experience
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Assimilation
use an existing schema to interpret a new experience that is encountered (know what a horse is then see a camel → bring camel into the same scheme as a horse)
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Accommodation
revise schemas to incorporate information from new experiences (they eventually revise scheme – to see lumps on the back to create a new scheme for a camel)
83
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development:
* sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
* preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
* concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years)
* formal operational stage (12 years and up)
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sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
object permanence
• not achieved - out of sight, out of mind
• achieved - the object remains even if they can’t see it
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pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years)
symbolic thought/ mental representation (objects, words, gestures stand for other things)
• associated with language development
• egocentrism = focused only on themselves and their view on the world (they can’t know what you see from one side of the room, can only see from their side of the room) each telling their own story but not taking in what the other person said
• Pretend play
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concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years)
conservation → understand physical properties of objects will remain constant regardless to change in shape
• Children can take multiple perspectives and can use them & their own mental abilities to solve problems - able to envision and visualize objects when trying to solve them
> Doing a puzzle
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formal operational stage (12 years and up)
hypothetical, deductible reasoning abstract thinking and reasoning (can envision problem and reason through in their head)
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Forming attachment
attachment & imprinting & Harry Harlow observations of monkeys & John Bowlby
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Attachment
strong, enduring, emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver (first moving organism that you see and will follow)
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Imprinting
a mechanism for establishing attachment (not in humans but will maintain visual contact when they are in front of (very close with caregiver) but we see an extension of imprinting and development of bonds (important to successful relationships in the future)
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Harry Harlow-observations of monkeys:
early attachment figures
• deprived of all early social interactions and resultant behavior
• supported the view that social and emotional development is rooted in early social interactions with adults
• spent most time with contact comfort mother and only minimal time with feeding mother
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John Bowlby
children become attached to a caregiver who provides a secure base, a place in which the child feels safe and protected
• use contact comfort → leads them to feel comfortable in their environment, more exploratory behavior and less stress/anxiety
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Variations in attachment:
• Mary Ainsworth created the strange situation test (attachment assessment)
• three attachment styles:
> secure
> insecure
- insecure/ avoidant
- insecure/ ambivalent (or resistant)
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Strange situation test
stranger makes baby feel anxious/stressed and holds onto mother for security when mother leaves the room (baby cries and tries to follow her, mother returns and baby stops crying)
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Attachment classifications (% based on American middle-class)
secure, avoidant-insecure, resistant-insecure
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Secure
distressed by parent leaving but easily comforted by return, secure base ~66% of American middle-class children (cannot be comforted by stranger)
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Avoidant-insecure
not distressed by parent leaving & avoid contact upon return ~20% (doesn’t matter to them)
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Resistant-insecure
initially failure to explore, angry & resistant upon return ~15% (approach parent but resist comfort)
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Why do children differ in their attachment styles?
Parental responsiveness to children’s needs and consistency (intervention study) & temperament in child (differences in emotional reactivity, to novel situations (anxiety-provoking)
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Temperament
stable individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional regulation
• irritable infants higher likelihood of insecure attachment (get upset more and harder to settle infants - with more difficult temperament)
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Mastering other minds
egocentrism & theory of mind
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Egocentrism
(Piaget) preoperational children can’t take other’s perspectives/ feelings
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Theory of mind
by age 5, children understand that we and other people have minds, that these minds represent the world in different ways
• take others mental perspectives
• Unique to humans
• Language development helps support
• Child who doesn’t pass task → knows where ball is hidden has been moved (child can’t envision that when the girl comes back in what her perspective is)
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Learning from the social world
sociocultural view of development & scaffolding
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sociocultural view of development (Lev Vygotsky)
social interaction with knowledgeable others (higher level of knowledge or abilities) is key to development
• developing in social context
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Scaffolding
actively challenging and supporting children (learning and interaction with objects in world, beyond current abilities)
• helps facilitate cognitive development
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Two dimensions of parenting styles:
* how sensitive and responsive they are to their child’s actions or needs
* how demanding or controlling they are of their children’s behavior
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Puberty
bodily changes associated with sexual maturity (psychological and social changes)
• primary sex characteristics
• secondary sex characteristics
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primary sex characteristics
bodily structures that are directly involved in reproductive
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secondary sex characteristics
changes that occur with sexual maturity but aren’t directly involved with reproduction (changes in voice, body hair, etc.)
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A changing body and brain - adolescence:
• on average, puberty begins at age 11 for girls and 13 for boys (genetics, nutrition, and health all play a role when puberty begins, as time goes on puberty starts at a younger age)
• puberty can begin at different times for different individuals
> genetics partly determine the timing of puberty
> nutrition/health (body fat percentage = more sedentary, less active)
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Adolescence and the brain:
* rapid increase in synaptic growth, neural connection, myelination of axons, second wave of synaptic pruning
* the limbic system goes through changes more rapidly than the prefrontal cortex
* prefrontal cortex is not fully developed in adolescence
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chapter 13
psych disorders
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Psychological disorder
persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts, or emotions
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signs
objectively observed
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symptoms
subjectively reported/experienced
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syndrome
a cluster of physical or mental symptoms that are typical of a particular condition or psychological disorder that tend to occur simultaneously
• 3 key factors (most not be an expected response, must not be a culturally approved response, cannot just be a deviation from social norms)
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psychopathology
(1) the scientific study of psychological disorders or (2) the disorders themselves
119
abnormal psychology
characterizes the nature of a given disorder and the origin of a disorder (what influences its development or emergence)
120
clinical psychology
assess and treat individuals who suffer from disorders
121
point prevalence
% of people in a given population; at a particular point in time (that have a disorder at a given time)
122
lifetime prevalence
% of people in a given population; that have suffered from a disorder at any point in their lives (more typical when seeing reports)
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lifetime prevalence
% of people in a given population; that have suffered from a disorder at any point in their lives (more typical when seeing reports)
124
most common to least common disorders
any disorder, any anxiety disorder, any mood disorder, any impulse-control disorder, any substance disorder
125
classifying disorders
using the DSM
126
Diagnostic and statistical manual of psychological disorders (DSM-5; 2013):
* 20 major categories containing more than 200 different mental disorders
* lists specific criteria that must be met for diagnosis for each disorder
* provides a section devoted to cultural considerations
* comorbidity
127
comorbidity
co-occurrence of two or more disorders
128
anxiety disorder
(can be adapted, but can be problematic when its disproportionate to what your experiencing)
• intense worry, nervousness, unease
• significant comorbidity between anxiety and depression
• less severe than GAD
129
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
• chronic (longer periods of time) excessive worry accompanied by three or more:
Restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance
• biological and psychological factors, ex: neurotransmitter (GABA) imbalance (no way to measure levels of neurotransmitters in the brain)
• can take a lot of adjustments to find the right medication or right dose
130
GABA
inhibits neurotransmission/ too little then there’s too much excitement
131
Anxiety Disorders
phobic disorders, GAD, panic disorders
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phobic disorders
* marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations
* specific and social
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specific phobia
particular object or situation (snakes and spiders) - evolved to an adaptation of fear - women more likely than men
134
social phobia
anxious about being watched, evaluated, judges (in social in public situations - worried about being potential embarrassment) - men and women are similar
135
preparedness theory
* people are predisposed toward certain fears
| * evolution, heritability, and temperament
136
classical condition plays a significant role in phobias
negative experience (remembered)
Panic disorder: the sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror (panic attack’s happening frequently)
• agoraphobia
137
agoraphobia
fear of public places/situations where help might not be available
138
panic attack
completely freaking out
139
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors - to get rid of thoughts (compulsions)
• classified separately from anxiety disorders
• Moderate heritability
140
acute stress disorder
a trauma -or stressor-related disorder lasts less than one month
141
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
a trauma- or stressor-related disorder that lasts one month or longer (extreme trauma)
• chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance
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what causes anxiety-related disorders?
Biological risk factors and psychological risk factors
Biological risk factors: anxiety-related disorders are influenced by genetics (concordance rate - higher rate in identical twins (share 100% of DNA))
• differences in brain activity (amygdala) & limbic system structures with individuals with anxiety disorders
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psychological risk factors
psychological maltreatment in childhood increases general likelihood of anxiety-related disorders
144
Major depressive disorder (or “depression:)
a mood disorder characterized by feelings of sadness, emptiness, anhedonia, rumination (continually think about problems and feelings you having difficulty with again and again) (>2 weeks)
• have to experience a range of different symptoms daily
• 7-15 percent for men and 20-15 percent for women
145
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD):
* recurrent depressive episodes with seasonal onset - specific to season
* decrease in day length or winter setting in
* NOT separate DSM-5 diagnosis
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Bipolar disorder
a mood-related disorder characterized by both manic episodes and depressive episodes
• hypomania & mania
147
hypomania
a mild form of mania
148
mania
a state of high excitement and energy (feeling of invincibility) - racing thoughts and lack of inhibition
149
what causes mood-related disorders?
Mood disorders result from biological, psychological, and social factors
150
biological factors
• genetics:
> concordance rate: 2x higher in identical twins
> 85% of variability in bipolar disorder is genetic
• neurotransmitters: norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin (lower levels)
• brain activity differences (lower activating in areas that regulate and control emotions)
151
psychological factors
• cognitive processes:
> negative cognitive schema
> explanatory style: how a person explains why bad things happen to him or her (negative explanatory level: would think they are responsible (internal) if something goes bad in one area in their life → other bad things will happen in other areas in their life (global) - they think this is how it's gonna be
• social factors
> interpersonal stress: relationships familiar and other close relationships (emergence of adolescent depression, losing parent at a young age, depression in caretaker, (increase risk) discord in family (relapse))
> societal crisis: war-torn countries, after a natural disaster, refugee camps (higher incidence)
152
schizophrenia
profound distribution of basic psychological processes, a distorted perception of reality, altered or blunted emotion, and disturbances in thought, motivation, and behavior (1% of pop) - emerges in late teen or early 20s
153
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
behaviors and thoughts that are beyond typically functioning (doesn’t suffer from any disorder)
• delusion (false belief)
• hallucination (false sensory perception) - self-generated experiences in brain
• disorganized behavior/ speech (inappropriate for a given situation, or not effective for the task at hand, motor disturbances (random movement), or talk about something that doesn’t make sense (no context or explanation)
154
Negative symptoms of schizophrenia
someone who doesn’t suffer from any mood-related disorders - behaviors that are less than what is typically
• emotional and social withdrawal, apathy, no interest in engaging with people or activities, poverty of speech, and other indications of the absence or insufficiency of normal behavior, motivation, and emotion
• anhedonia (lack of pleasure in doing activities that would normally be pleasurable for them)
• affective flattening (very blunted and little expression of emotions)
• catatonic behavior (rare cases, individuals will be frozen in given position)
155
dopamine hypothesis
the hypothesis that schizophrenia arises from an abnormally high level of activity in brain circuits sensitive to dopamine (not just high dopamine)
156
brain areas
reduced volume especially in frontal and temporal lobes; enlarged ventricles (fluid-filled spaces and cavities in the brain)
157
genetics
concordance rates 3x more likely for identical twins to both have schizophrenia than in fraternal twins
158
Prenatal predisposition
influenza when pregnant - children more likely to have schizophrenia
• prenatal nutrition
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chapter 14
therapies
160
psychoanalysis
a method of therapy, developed by Sigmund Freud, asserting that clinical symptoms arise from unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood (laid the groundwork)
• emotionally charged memories were repressed (from childhood) → basis for physical and psychological symptoms experiences
161
psychodynamic approaches
therapeutic approaches that derive from psychoanalytic theory
• less frequent and intensive than Freud’s sessions
• face-to-face, rather than Freud’s method of treating out of sight (listening)
• goal is to find relief from symptoms, as well as insights (rather than find root)
• more contemporary
• therapist doesn’t express reactions, emotions, opinions
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Interpersonal therapy (IPT)
focuses on helping clients improve current relationships (how they interact with others and better ways to do so)
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Humanistic approach
an approach to therapy centered around the idea that people must take responsibility for their lives and actions (freuds was too concerned with the past - more focuses on the present and current feelings to improve psychological functioning and daily functioning)
164
(1) Client-centered therapy (person-centered therapy)
assumes that all individuals have a tendency toward growth and this growth can be facilitated by acceptance and genuine reactions from the therapist (Carl Rogers)
• accepting yourself without judgment, but move forward making changes to feel better (self-actualization)
• therapist shows empathy and unconditional positive regard → reacting and interacting with individual as the present problems
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(2) Motivational interviewing
a brief, non confrontational, client-centered therapy designed to change specific problematic behaviors
• draw out goals (changes their looking for)
• help to refer back to what they have said previously and identify discrepancies
• alcoholism and drug use
166
(3) Gestalt therapy
aims to help patients integrate inconsistent aspects of themselves into a coherent whole by increasing self-awareness and self-acceptance (take responsibility to how they react with others and approaching different situations)
167
3 key aspects of gestalt therapy :
```
empty chair (role play) - pretend to be sat across person they are having difficulties with
Aware of feelings, and clarify exactly what the problem is, and formulate plan to try and change situation
Focusing: how they feel in the moment
Hot seat: therapist will directly challenge or confront client in their role or responsibility with person in interest (if client is contributing problems with person)
```
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behavioral approaches
based on learning principles (classical, operant conditioning, and modeling)
• eliminate unwanted behavior
• promote desired behavior
• reduce unwanted emotional responses (modifying behavior)
169
exposure techniques
train them in relaxation techniques
• systematic desensitization → in vivo exposure (going through phobia irl)
Having them relax during different situations that are high anxiety (teaching them how to cope with experiences)
170
behavior modification techniques
makes use of positive reinforcement
• token economy
• contingency management
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token economy
patients’ positive behaviors are reinforced (where individuals are rewarded with collecting tokens that will add up to an award)
172
Contingency management
certain behaviors are reliably followed by well-defined consequences
• chart with wanted behaviors and rewards you can get or consequences from unwanted behaviors
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cognitive approaches
a family of therapeutic approaches based on the idea that maladaptive behaviors arise due to errors in thinking (problems people are experiencing are due to their erroneous thinking - negative cognitive thinking)
174
(1) Rational emotive behavioral therapy
therapist actively challenges the patient’s irrational beliefs (idea that individuals have beliefs that are incorrect or irrational)
• focuses on those beliefs and tries to change them
• ex: not getting chosen to share view out of group: “no one values my work” - jump to most negative interpretation to what happened → therapist disputes irrational belief “well what happened at the last few meetings” - bringing to conscious awareness to how things really are
175
cognitive therapy
aims to change patient’s (incorrect beliefs) habitual modes of dysfunctional thinking about themselves, their situation, and their future
• negative cognitive triad
• cognitive restructuring
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negative cognitive triad
three types of dysfunctional beliefs related to oneself, the world, and the future (“unloveable”, “no one is nice, no one helps anyone” “it's only going to get worse”) - don't remember positive occurrences or disregard them
177
cognitive reconstructing
techniques for changing a person’s maladaptive beliefs or interpretations (help them realize the positive experiences)
178
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
focuses on changing the patient’s habitual interpretations of the world and ways of behaving
• focus on present, identify and solve problems clients have, very specific goals, often assign homework
179
New forms: “third wave therapies”:
* acceptance and commitment therapy: created to promote acceptance of thoughts and feelings even if they are negative or unwanted
* mindfulness-based stress reduction: developed to encourage clients to observe their thoughts. feelings, and sensations in the present moment
180
Psychopharmacological approaches:
drugs/medication that can help to balance levels of neurotransmitters
181
Typical (conventional) antipsychotics
“first-generation” antipsychotic medications-black dopamine
• reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia but didn't do much to help neg symptoms
• tardive dyskinesia and other side effects (dry mouth, weight gain, facial twitches)
182
Atypical antipsychotics
“more recent” block dopamine more selectively and alter serotonin transmission
• fewer side effects and more selective in influencing the activity of different neurotransmitters
183
Antidepressants
• early:
> monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI)
> tricyclic antidepressants
• now:
> SSRI: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (Prozac, Celexa, Paxil)
> SNRI: serotonin and norepinephrine (Effexor)
> “atypical antidepressant”: norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitor (Wellbutrin)
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mood stabilizer
treats manic, mixes, or depressive states. Use to treat bipolar disorder
> lithium carbonate (side effects: emotional flattening (less emotional), high in toxins (effect kidneys), dangerous for pregnant
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anxiety medication
Anxiolytic
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Anxiolytic
a type of drug that alleviates the symptoms of anxiety
• benzodiazepine
• beta blocker
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Benzodiazepine
facilitates inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (Klonapin, Xanax, valium, Ativan)
• addictive
• rebound effect
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Beta-blocker
controls autonomic arousal
| • can feel increasing anxiety → recognize they’re in the situation (can control neg spiral)
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biological treatments beyond medication
* psychosurgery: surgical destruction of specific brain areas
* electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): delivering a shock to the brain to induce a mild seizure
* repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS): delivering a little jolt of electricity with a magnet over a person scalp, to increase neural activity
* deep brain stimulation
* vagal nerve stimulation
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psychosurgery
surgical destruction of specific brain areas
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repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
an emerging biological treatment for depression that involves applying rapid pulses of magnetic stimulation to the brain from a coil head near the scalp
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deep brain stimulation
(like rTMS, but targeted) - inc neural activity
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vagal nerve stimulation
electrically stimulating the vagus nerve with a small battery-powered implant (stimulate parasympathetic nervous system to regulate mood)
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Eclecticism
eclecticism-combined therapy approaches
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ex) dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
an electric therapy for treating borderline personality disorder, that includes elements of cognitive, behavioral, humanistic, and psychodynamic approaches
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“Matched treatment eclecticism”
1 in 3 people with disorders have a combination of psychological and biological treatments
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chapter 15
social psychology
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social psychology
effects of social context, culture influence people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions
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The distinction between social psychology and personality psychology:
• social: variability in an individual behavior as a function of social context
How does the immediate environment change behavior?
Why do people act differently in different situations? And why?
• personality
How do individuals’ stable characteristics affect behavior?
Why do people act consistently across situations?
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Motivations in social psychology influence
how we interact with people
• need to belong - getting along with other people and feeling accepted
• need to feel control = a balance between internal and external locus of control // our own control over ourselves and the choices we make and our behaviors // external influences affect our behaviors and our attitudes
• need to perceive ourselves positively = related to self-esteem, whether or not our behavior and our attitudes allow ourselves to view ourselves with respect
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How do we make sense of what other people do?
Attribution
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Attribution
find a causal reason/explanation for someone’s behavior (different cultures can affect)
• external (abt situation) vs internal (abt person)
• fundamental attribution error
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External attribution ex
get cut off while driving, explanation = late to work
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Internal attribution ex
get cut off while driving, explanation = jerk, impatient, entitled
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Fundamental attribution error
default to internal attribution (jumping to conclusion that its something about the person)
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attitude
orientation towards some targeted stimulus (affective feeling, cognitive belief, behavioral motivation) - think, feel, behave
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Affective feeling
emotional (positive or negative)
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Cognitive belief
what you think about it, based on prior experiences and expectations
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Behavioral motivation
whether you would engage or disengage activities, or approach or avoid a person or situation
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implicit attitude
automatic - developed via associates and repeated exposures
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explicit attitudes
report (state) think and describe your attitude - shaped by social norms and values (can more easily be changed)
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Persuasive messages
can change attitudes and behaviors
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Persuasion
can change explicit attitudes by direct appeal - trying to change peoples attitudes or behavior
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Two different routes to changing attitude and behavior in the ELM:
1. Central route
| 2. Peripheral route
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Central route
learn new evidence to change the mind (purposeful) - effortful
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Peripheral route
automatic, superficial, not based on evidence, status - less important decisions
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Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
dual-processing theory
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What strategies can be used to get people to comply with a request?
* foot-in-the-door technique
| * door-in-the-face technique
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foot-in-the-door technique
a small request followed by a larger request (ex: asking someone to wear a pin on earth day to vote for a greener environment → later and ask to put a yard sign in their yard that will remain for a period of time)
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door-in-the-face technique
a large request followed by a smaller request (ex: starting with something big, knowing they were going to say no → then presenting something less)
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Cognitive dissonance
unpleasant state when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs (reduce by modifying actions and behaviors or attitudes)
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When do people change their attitudes to justify their behavior?
When behavior cannot be explained by the situation alone
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Cultural norms and conformity:
In different cultures, there are different ways you are expected to express grief
Some are supposed to hold it together, and can loudly express in private
Some are supposed to show grief out loud and in public
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Social norms:
patterns of behavior, traditions, beliefs, and preference that are reinforced by others and influence behavior
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conformity
we implicity mimic and adopt the behaviors, beliefs, and preferences of those around us
• informational social influence
• normative social influence
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informational social influence
when we gain or think we are gaining evidence or information that leads us to respond or behave a certain way (based on what other people are saying)
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normative social influence
in order to gain others approval (so you are not the odd person out)
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Solomon Asch conformity study (1955)
people being influenced to respond the same as everyone else (one participant, the rest told what to say, in this lines were shown, the confederates were told to pick the wrong answer on length of line, the participant conforms with what everyone else says) - people go along with the group for different reasons (37% down to 5%)
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Conformity can be affected by being in a large group
a large group can cause deindividuation → silly, dangerous, or unlawful behavior
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Deindividuation
loss of individual values and not focusing on ourselves as an individual
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obedience
authority
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Can most people be made to commit harmful acts in the name of obedience?
The Milgram experiments
| • obedience study
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Obedience study
people said they were just following orders in regard to harming people
• a confederate (learner) and a participant (teacher) → every time there is an error, the teacher shocks the learner (every time, the error the learner gets an increased shock)
• highest levels learner stops responding, 65% were giving that shock because they were told to keep going
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What factors decrease obedience?
If you minimize the validity, less obedience. Can see pain, less obedience.
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prosocial behavior
helping, sharing, comforting (benefits someone else but doesn’t benefit you) - altruism
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Altruism
behavior that benefits another without benefitting oneself
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Why help relatives?
Favored by natural selection, we are passing on our DNA from our family (Kin selection)
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Kin selection
the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives
• inclusive fitness = explains altruism
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Why help strangers?
* norm of reciprocity
| * cultural evolution argument
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Norm of reciprocity
people are more likely to help those who have helped them in the past or might be able to help in the future (sociocultural norm) - expect the return of favor
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Cultural evolution argument:
prosocial societies of reciprocity are more likely to succeed
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Failing to help in an Emergency: Kitty Genovese
Steps to helping: notice someone in need → recognize it’s an emergency → take personal responsibility → to identify what help is needed and take action
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Bystander effect:
less likely to help if others are around (because you assume others are doing something) - ex) Kitty Genovese
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Pluralistic ignorance
unaware of others’ true thoughts; take others’ inaction as evidence that no aid is needed (hard to know what’s happening)
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Diffusion of responsibility:
others have already called for help or are more skilled to help (identifying an individual)
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Stereotype
mental representations or schemas about groups (ideas)
> kids learn stereotypes at a young age
> news can predict the degree to which they hold stereotypes
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prejudice
is a negative attitude toward a group or members of a group (leads to discrimination)
Discrimination: differential treatment of individuals because of their group
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Why are people prejudiced toward individuals from other groups?
* realistic group conflict theory
| * social identity theory
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realistic group conflict theory
there’s competition for resources which can lead to negative intergroup attitudes (jobs, housing) - robber’s cave
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social identity theory
maintain a cohesive positive view of ingroup by viewing outgroup more negatively (ingroup → group you belong to) - us vs them mentality
• ingroup favoritism: preferring your group over other groups (flip of a coin and tee-shirt color)
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Reducing prejudice
prejudice and discrimination threaten the need for belonging and harm well-being
• explicit attitudes have become less neg but indirect forms of racism still exist
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Can contact with another group reduce prejudice against them?
“No” - Gordon Allport’s (1954) contact hypothesis but working together with other groups, having equal standing, working toward a common goal, and an environment that supports social change → lead to a reduction in prejudice
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Robber’s cave demonstration
two boys at a camp developed a prejudice against one another (ingroup vs outgroup) but there was a reduction in these prejudice through making them go through situations where they needed to cooperate together
• first bonded together and developed groups
• competition stage → two groups fighting
• asked to talk about the other group → most negative
• engage in non-competitive activities → goals to accomplish so they had to work together
• kids had come together no longer as enemies but as allies
With limited resources (only the winning group being rewarded) which lead to conflict, → it wasn’t until they had direct contact that involved depending on one another
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The contact hypothesis
direct contact between groups will reduce prejudice if:
• mutual interdependence
• common goals
• interacting partners have equal status
• social norms favor inter-group contact
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Cooperation and interdependence
the jigsaw classroom
• placing children in small, desegregated groups (mixed groups, different levels of abilities, different backgrounds)
• each child is dependent on others to learn the course material and do well
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Why does the jigsaw work?
Breaks down the perception of ingroup vs outgroup, develop empathy through others, share information (do favors for others)
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Implicit bias
exist outside of conscious awareness (unaware)
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Explicit bias
attitudes or stereotypes that consciously and intentionally exist in our minds (consciously state what they are and hold those biases)
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What are implicit racial biases?
* negative attitudes or stereotypes about members of a different race that easily and automatically associate with thoughts/expectations about the racial group
* IAT is a way to measure racial bias
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IAT
measures speed of positive and negative reactions to target groups
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Can we change implicit bias?
“Implicit bias is like a habit that can be broken through a combination of awareness of implicit bias, concern about the effects of that bias, and the application of strategies to reduce bias” - devine, forscher, austin, and cox
• have an intervention for changing implicit bias, implementing the approach to change bias takes time and energy, each one of us as an individual can do the work to change and can consider what each of us can do to make a change - collective action can lead to change at a broad level
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BLM & implicit bias-sawyer & gamma (2018)
participants who completed the race IAT at project implicit from January 1, 2009, to June 30, 2016
• examined IAT scores across time for black and white participants
> pre-BLM vs Post-BLM
> 7 periods of high BLM activity
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White participants:
* decrease in anti-black attitudes during BLM compared to pre-BLM
* continued decrease in anti-black attitudes during BLM
* decrease in pro-white bias in 4 of the 6 BLM periods
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Black participants:
* increase in pro-black attitudes during BLM compared to pre-BLM
* continued increase in pro-black attitudes across BLM
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Conclusion
blacks demonstrated little implicit bias prior to BLM (no preference), whites greeted degree of implicit bias (greater room for bias reduction)
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forming friendships
Belongingness need-Maslow-and motivation underlying social behavior - fundamental need higher up in the hierarchy of needs
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What predicts whom we come to like as a friend?
* proximity or frequency, close contact
* repeated mere exposure (photographs) → familiarity → liking
* people around us are often similar to us
* chameleon effect: where individuals mimic → mannerisms, accents, & speech of people that we like and like individuals more when they mimic us
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Sexual attraction
```
people are attracted to similar others
• similar-looking couples
• couples with similar backgrounds
• couples with similar goals
facial symmetry is considered attractive: cue to physical health and well-being and better genes (to pick partners that will be healthy mates)
```
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Why do heterosexual men and women find different things attractive in a mate?
• parental investment theory: egg vs sperm
> sexual selection: favoring certain characteristics that lead to higher survival rate, maximizing reproductive success
> women: exert effort and time in childbearing → have eggs, hold baby, nursing
> men: biologically no effort required → many sperm, no involvement of males helping in offspring
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Cultural norms also inform sexual attraction
in cultures with greater gender equality, women care less about men’s income
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Both men and women share similar preferences (personality characteristics):
* positive personality characteristics are prioritized
| * on dating apps, physical attraction is equally predictive of who men and women dating
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Close relationships - infant attachment styles can affect adult attachment:
we develop expectations of what a partner should be providing
• secure: feel worthy of love and affection; view others as trustworthy
• anxious-ambivalent: passionate but also jealous and angry
• dismissive-avoidant: confident but reluctant to grow close to or depend on others
• fearful-avoidant: negative view of oneself and mistrust of others
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Successful relationships:
• good to have positive views of partners
• viewing flaws as unimportant (focus on behavior and personality)
• rating partners’ personality better than they would rate it
• learn how to disagree/agree
> “four horsemen of relationship’s apocalypse” to avoid: criticism, contempt, stonewalling (withdrawing from conversation), defensiveness
• everything you can think of when things are good, you should maximize those to offset the negatives
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Online social interaction - in what ways does online social interaction benefit/diminish psychological well-being?
Pros:
• easily stay connected to distant friends and family
• broader social network (even virtual) lowers stress and increases well-being
• connect with people you’d never meet otherwise
Cons:
• frequent checking of social media predicts dips in happiness and satisfaction
• checking email increases stress
• takes us away from people nearby who feel neglected, ignored
• losing body language - interpreting things wrong
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social facilitation
helps the "dominant response" - the pattern of behavior most typical to the task
