chap 2 animals Flashcards
(94 cards)
1
Q
what is activation(in regards to fertilization)
A
Fertilization not only establishes a diploid zygote, it also activates a quiescent egg called activation
2
Q
what is a fast block to polyspermy
A
When a sperm contacts the egg membrane it causes a change in membrane potential to sweep across the surface of the egg. The change in electrical potential caused by movement of ions causes sperm to be repelled
3
Q
what is a slow block to polyspermy
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A cortical reaction (of the cortex = outer region of egg) is also occurring that causes structural changes to occur at the egg membrane which sets a more permanent block
4
Q
what is cleavage divisions
A
series of rapid cell divisions associated with production of increasingly smaller cells.
5
Q
cleavage: what is a morula
A
relatively small cluster of loosely packed cells that resembles a mulberry or blackberry.
6
Q
cleavage: what is a Blastocoel and blastula
A
Water follows the ions and, as it accumulates, a cavity (Blastocoel) is produced and the embryo is referred to as a Blastula.
7
Q
cleavage: what is blastomeres
A
In the blastula, cells of the embryo, and immobile.
8
Q
cleavage: whT is gastrulation and anchenteron
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when blastomeres become mobile, an indication that the embryo enters gastrulation which is characterized by the development of a gut tube (archenteron)
9
Q
cleavage; what is epiboly
A
when increasingly smaller cells move over the surface of the embryo
10
Q
cleavage: what is involution
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moving cells converge toward a region of the embryo where they begin to involute
11
Q
cleavage: what is a blastopore
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opening to the archenteron. As an opening to the gut tube, the blastopore can form the mouth, or near the anus.
12
Q
what is a Protostomes and their cell fate?
A
animal where blastopore develops into the mouth. characterized by determinate cleavage (cell fate is determined; divide an embryo in half and get two halves of an animal
13
Q
what is Deuterostomes and their cell fate?
A
blastopore develops into anus and mouth. have indeterminate cleavage where cells cam be whatever (divide an embryo in two and get twins; into four and get quadruplets, as in armadillo
14
Q
what are the three germ layers
A
ectoderm; endoderm, mesoderm
15
Q
what is included in ectoderm
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epidermis and much of the nervous system
16
Q
what is included in endoderm
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lining of the gut tube, liver, pancreas, lining of the respiratory passages
17
Q
what is included in mesoderm
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muscles, circulatory vessels, skeleton, kidneys, gonads
18
Q
what are dipoblastic animals
A
jellies and such. have 2 germ layers, endo and ecto. radical symmetry(8 pieces) simple body
19
Q
what are triploblastic animals
A
have three germs layers ecto, endo, and meso. are mammals. bilateral symmetry(beverly)
20
Q
what is notocord
A
in chordates. is of mesodermal origin, develops along the mid-dorsal line of a developing chordate during gastrulation and stimulates the development of the neural tube (which will form the spinal cord in vertebrates). Notice that this also helps to establish the major axes of the body: anterior vs posterior; dorsum (topside) vs ventrum (bottomside).
21
Q
define trophoblast
A
A thin layer of cells that helps a developing embryo attach to the wall of the uterus, protects the embryo, and forms a part of the placenta.
22
Q
what is cephalization
A
ability to assess sitatuons(brain) due to head. major sense organ became concentrated at the anterior end of the elongated body: eyes, ears, smell, taste, etc., so that animals can evaluate whether or not to enter a new habitat.
23
Q
what is coelom and the four different types
A
body cavity development. coelomates and eucoelmates and acoelmates and pseudocolemates
24
Q
what is the body cavity of an acoelomate
A
lack body cavity and have gastrovascular cavity
25
what is the body cavity of an coelomate
simply have a body cavity
26
what is the body cavity of an eucoelomate
have the mesenteries with blood vessels which transport nutrients from the gut tube to the rest of the body
27
what is the body cavity of a pseudocoelomate
lack mesenteries and their nutrients are sloshed around; therefore, diffusion of nutrients from gut tube into the body cavity fluids
28
what is an Open Circulatory Systems
in Arthropods, such as insects and crayfish, no capillaries so blood is pumped from a heart through blood vessels (arteries) so that it can be distributed to all regions of the body , but the arteries carry blood to cavities around major organs. These cavities are called sinuses or hemocoels (= blood cavities). Organs are then bathed in blood, or more properly when it leaves the vessels and mixes with other body fluids, hemolymph. blood is returned to the heart. Blood flow or circulation in animals with an open circulatory system is relatively slow
29
what is a closed circulatory system
in vertebrates, such as mammals, blood is pumped from a heart to organs of the body through arteries. Blood flow is a bit more rapid in a Closed System compared to the Open System, allowing for more rapid delivery of nutrients to tissues and organs of the body.
30
what is metamerism
In many bilaterally symmetrical animals, the body is divided into segments or metameres, which are repeated body parts. This is obvious in muscles (think of the filet of a fish), but can also include other soft organs, such as gonads, blood vessels, kidneys, vertebrae, and other structures.
31
what is Cambrian Explosion
a period that lasted about 50 million years during which time tremendous diversification evolved within the major phyla, perhaps because of increased atmospheric oxygen that led to increased activity levels, which further led to many arms races as predator/prey interactions intensified. during this we recognize that animals with the same basic body plan (i.e., in the same phylum) began to differ in how they acquired or captured and processed food, how they reproduced (internal vs external reproduction), egg-laying vs giving birth to live young, and movement (limbs for swimming, flight, crawling, bounding, etc.)
32
how do these types of animals feed: detritivores, herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores
Detritivores, which feed on dead organic matter
Herbivores, which feed on algae or plants
Carnivores, which feed on animals
Omnivores, which feed on a variety of organisms
33
how do parasites feed?
some animals are parasites that feed on body parts or fluids—some enter into a body to feed (endoparasites, such as tapeworms and flatworms); whereas, others can be found on a body surface (ectoparasite, such as ticks and fleas).
34
what is external fertilization
the gametes are shed into water
35
what is internal fertilization
in which an intromittent organ is used to transfer sperm from a male into the body of a female.
36
what are the four primary tissues
Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Nervous tissue, and Muscular tissue.
37
what is epithelial tissue
lining tissue found on internal and external surfaces of animal bodies. Epithelial cells are in intimate contact with other epithelial cells and they form sheets or layers; the cells often are stuck tightly together. Cells on the surface of a sheet or facing a lumen have polarity.
38
what are the apical and basal ends and lumen of the epithelial tissue and the microvilli that are associated with the apical ends
Basal ends are adhered often to a basement membrane or connective tissue. Apical ends are the free ends facing either an external or internal environment, such as a lumen (cavity of a tube). Apical surfaces are modified to serve specific functions based on their location. they can be ciliated to move substances across a surface, (respiratory membranes moving mucus laden with dust and other inhaled particles) Other apical surfaces are covered with microvilli, which are small extensions of the cell membrane that significantly increase the surface area of the apical surface. The apical surfaces of columnar epithelial cells lining the lumen of the small intestine are covered with microvilli, which increase the surface area for efficient absorption of nutrients.
39
what are epithelials receptor cells?
function to detect mechanical energy (touch, sound waves). In these receptor cells, stereocilia (processes similar to enlarged microvilli) and kinocilia (enlarged cilia) act together as a trigger mechanism. have an intrinsic rate of electrical discharge, but when the stereocilia and kinocilium are touched or bent, the rate of discharge changes. change in pulse rate is interpreted by the brain. "hair cells"
40
what are the shapes of epithelial cells and the layer types
squamous, cubiodal, columnar. they can be simple or stratified EACH LAYER IS CALLED STRATUM
41
what is keratinization
occurs in the stratified epidermis (outer layer of skin) of many vertebrates, such as humans, lizards and snakes, frogs, etc. As they age and change position, the cells become modified from columnar cells into squamous cells, and are eventually are sloughed off the body as single cells, small clusters of cells (e.g., dandruff) or in its entirety (snake shed).
42
what is the squamous epi-cells? what if stratified? ( stratum ____±____)
flat cells that routinely fall off. called stratified squamous epithelium. The lowest or basal layer abuts and is adhered to the underlying dermis (connective tissue). Cells of the lowest layer undergo cell and nuclear division (mitosis). This lowest layer of cells is referred to as the stratum basale or stratum germinativum. Daughter cells are pushed upward, and as they age and move upward, they accumulate the keratin. The outermost layer of cells that is in contact with the external environment is termed the stratum corneum.
43
difference between simple and stratified epi-cells?
simple is single layer if stratified more than one layer
44
what are cuboidal cells?
wide as they are tall.
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what are columnar cells?
taller than they are wide
46
what are connective tissues? what are the two types? what is collagen and elastin?
has a matrix of protein fibers secreted from various types of fibroblasts. Connective tissues can bind, strengthen, or store substances. loose- soft, loose, dermis, adipose tissue. dense- cartilage and bone. collagen- strong fiber that resists stretch, packed tg forms tendons(muscle->bone), and ligaments(bone->bone). elastin- protein that provides elasticity and resilience to various tissues in the body.
47
connective tiss: chondroblasts? (chondrocytes and lacuna)
Chondroblasts are cells that secrete a cartilaginous matrix. When surrounded by the matrix they are referred to as chondrocytes. The cavity in which the chondrocyte resides is a lacuna (plural = lacunae).
48
connective tiss: what are three major types of cartilage?
Hyaline Cartilage, Fibrocartilage, and Elastic Cartilage.
49
connective tiss: what is hyaline cartilage
most abundant cartilage, forming the skeleton or cartilaginous fish, such as sharks. This is the cartilage that forms the foundation of much of the skeleton in vertebrates, including humans, and is often replaced by bone. It persists in many location, including the caps of long bones so that joints are cartilage on cartilage(+septum).
50
connective tiss: what is fibrocartilage
Fibrocartilage contains many protein fibers. This type of cartilage forms much of the intervertebral disks. Fibrocartilage surrounds remnants of the notochord in the disks.
51
connective tiss: what is elastic cartilage
contains many cells and elastin fibers. This type of cartilage is very flexible and forms much of the outer ear. Recall that blood vessels do not flow through cartilage, so nutrients must diffuse through this tissue to get to the chondrocytes (and wastes to be removed). Thus, cartilage is usually thin and it heals relatively slowly.
52
connective tiss: what is bone? think bone/osteon crosssection(osteoblast/cyte, lacuna, haversian canals, lamellae, canaliculi)
hard, mineralized matrix (hydroxy apatite). Osteoblasts secretes the bony matrix and mature into osteocytes as the cells are surrounded by the hard matrix. The osteocytes reside in lacunae. Bone tissue is often organized in Haversian systems or osteons. Haversian canals are at the center of an osteon and osteocytes occur in organized rings around the Haversian canal (sometimes referred to as central canals because of their central location in an osteron. Distinct ring-like sheets (lamellae) are identifiable on cross sections of osteons, and tiny canals, the canaliculi allow nutrients and wastes to flow from or to blood vessels in the Haversian canals.
53
what do nervous tissues consist of?
Neuroglial cells and Neurons.
54
nervous tiss: what are neuroglial cells
neuroglial cells- support cells that do the conveying of information from brain to body and vice versa(neurons)
55
what are the different types of neuroglial cells?
ependymal cells, astrocytes, microglial cells, oglodendroglial celss, and schwann cells
56
nervous- neuroglial cells: what are ependymal cells
neuroepithelial cells that are ciliated and line the central canal of the spinal cord and ventricles of the brain.
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nervous- neuroglial cells: what are astrocytes?
astrocytes- connect diff. cell types tg and regulate communication in nervous system by cleaning up neurotransmitters.
58
nervous- neuroglial cells: what are microglial cells
cells in the central nervous system and remove debris and microbes. aka immune cells and remove bacteria that gets in body
59
nervous- neuroglial cells: what are Oligodendroglial cells
basically is the myelin sheath around axon made of phospholipids. brain and spinal cord
60
nervous- neuroglial cells: what are schwann cells
are Oligodendroglial cells but for skeletal + movement. peripheral nerves
61
nervous tiss: parts of neurons and what are they?
soma-cell body (hair holder)
dendrites- receptors (hair things)
axon-passes info (line thing)
telodendria- holds the terminal buttons
terminal buttons- store vesticles of chemical neurotransmitters and will attach to other dendrites/muscles and release neurotransmitters
myelin sheath- speed and skip
nodes of Ranvier- gaps in the myelin sheath, areas of axon that depolarize
62
what is a sodium potassium pump
is what makes the axon polar. 3Na+ put in 2K+ put out. it causes Ca++ to be at button ands allows vesticle to release.
63
what are common neurotransmitters
serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, acetylcholine etc
64
what is synaptic pruning
telodendria are constantly being removed and regrown, allowing for more efficient communication or transmission of information. when we dream we organize thoughts, work out problems, and refine neuromuscular junctions--pruning of the neurons
65
what are the 3 major types of muscle tissue?
Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle, and Skeletal muscle.
66
muscle tiss-what is smooth muscle?
spindle-shaped or elliptical cells that have only one nucleus, which is located in the center of the cell. lack striations in the cytoplasm, and are under involuntary control. often forms sheets- major components in the walls of tubular organs, such as blood vessels, intestines, respiratory passageways, and tubes of the reproductive tract. is also found in skin (goosebumps)
67
muscle tiss: what is cardiac muscle?
involunatary, striated, branched fibers. Nutrients and electrical impulses easily move through the unusual membranes of the intercalated discs from one cell to another.
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muscle tiss: what is skeletal muscle?
distinctly striated, cylindrical, multinucleated fibers (cells) that are under voluntary control. have myofibrils
69
muscle tiss: skeletal muscle- what is a sacromere? AND label handheld picture
Functional unit of muscle contraction made of actin chains AKA thin filament and has active site which myosin binds to making thick filament. At rest protein tropomyosin(long thing) binds to actin thin Helix and blocks myosin from binding therefore no moving. Troponin(cloud thing) binds to tropomyosin, due to Ca++ which comes from sarcoplasmic reticulum released via acetylcholine and will move tropomyosin away to allow for movement. When actin and myosin bind together it's called a crossbridge and ADP and Pi released allowing power stroke to occur. Titan protein brings Z line back to position by springing thick fil to z-line.
70
muscle tiss: skeletal muscle- what are myofibrils and what they make?
organelles, are contractile protiens, made up of sacromeres. myofibrils make up a myofiber, many myofibers make up fascicles which make up a muscle
71
muscle tiss: skeletal muscle- how does muscle contraction work?
ATP involved. on myosin head there is ATP receptor next to Actin receptor, head of myosin will be cocked, when bound to actin the ATP comes in and binds two receptor allowing to uncock. when dead ATP is not produced which is why rigor mortis occurs. aka ATP=relaxed w/o ATP=cocked
72
muscle tiss: skeletal muscle- what is sliding filament theory
Explains muscle contraction as a result of myosin AKA thick filaments pulling actin AKA thin filaments past each other shortening the sarcomere and causing muscle contraction
73
muscle tiss: skeletal muscle- what is myoglobin?
the O2 carrying protein of muscle cells and its association with fast twitch and slow twitch muscles and the dark meat and white meat in some animals, such as chickens, turkey, quail, etc. allows to run fast w/o fatigue.
74
osmoregulation: what are osmocomforters?
do not regulate the osmolarity of their body fluids in tissues or blood. As a consequence, the osmolarity of their blood and extracellular fluid is nearly identical to that of the sea water(open ocean) in which they live (they conform their osmolarity to that of the environment) usually [solution] barely changes unless big storm.
75
osmoregulation: what are stenohaline osmocomforters?
(steno = narrow, haline = salt), meaning can tolerate only a narrow range of [salt]. fine, usually, cause oceans rarely change [salt] very much or very rapidly. but, local die-offs of these animals are occasionally reported following massive storms as freshwater dilutes the salt or [electrolyte] of the ocean in a specific spot, rapidly decreasing the osmolarity of the invertebrate body fluids and causing their death.
76
osmoregulation: what are euryhaline animals?
(eury = broad, haline =salt), which have the ability to osmoregulate—to regulate the [salt] and [electrolytes] in their body. Invertes that live closer to coastlines are typically more tolerant of changes in the [salt] of the ocean, in part, because freshwater streams dump water into coastal waters—highly variable based on rainfall oftentimes hundreds of miles away from the coast.
77
osmoregulation: what are hyperosmotic regulators?
animals that regulate body fluids by maintaining solute concentration above the aquatic environment. typcially freshwater. 2 problems- h2o flows in via osmosis which dilutes and disrupts bodies acitivites, and lose salt via diffusion.
78
osmoregulation: what are hypoosmotic regulators?
animals that regulate body fluids by maintaining solute concentration below that of the aquatic environment. 1/3 that of sea water. 2 problems- water lose, and salt gain
79
osmoregulation: hypoosomotic- what issues do sharks face regarding hypoosomotic regu? how they fix it?
have salt concentrations of their body fluids similar to that of marine bony fish—1/3 that of sea water—but their overall osmolarity is about that of seawater. They elevate their osmotic pressure with organic compounds, especially urea and trimethylamine oxide by storing in tiss. They use Rectal Glands to help regulate salt balance(excrete)—the rectal gland cells have Na+K+ ATPase = a sodium/potassium pump.
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osmoregulation: what issues do terrestrial animals face?
lose water by evaporation. Lost water can be replaced by drink or food. They need to conserve water, but also need to eliminate nitrogenous waste products, which require water to reduce toxicity of the nitrogenous waste material. Nitrogenous wastes contain N and are produced with the ingestion of proteins and nucleic acids. Various types od Excretory Organs (organs that eliminate nitrogenous and other metabolic wastes). Depending on the group of animals, nitrogenous waste is excreted as ammonia, urea, or uric acid.
81
Organs of Excretion: what are Contractile vacuoles.
organelle rather than an organ. found in sponges (some protists). Water is collected in small vesicles, which fuse together and attach to cell membranes where the water can be released. help prevent flooding. Electrolytes are also eliminated with the water.
82
Organs of Excretion: what are Flame Cells/ Protonephridia
Found in flatworms. Two highly branched ducts. Fluid enters through flame cells, and cilia push water out through pores on the body surface. Flatworms lack circulatory systems.
83
Organs of Excretion: wht are Antennal Glands
in crustaceans. Paired structures near the base of the antennae, also known as green glands and coxal glands. Cells within the tube have the ability to secrete or resorb material, thus, creating a urine from body fluids.
84
Organs of Excretion: what are Nephridia (metanephridia).
Found in earthworms. A nephridium consists of a coiled tube with a ciliated funnel(nephrostome) on one end that is found in the body cavity of the worm. The other end of the tube connects to the body surface(nephridiopore). A plexus of capillaries is wrapped around the twisted tube—the capillaries are termed peritubular capillaries. Peri-“around”. The ciliated funnel gathers body fluid from the coelom (Coelomic fluid). Coelomic fluid is transported down the tube to be eliminated out a pore on the body surface. As it passes through the tube, the composition of the fluid is modified by tubular secretion (solutes secreted from blood in capillary into the tube) and selective absorption (solutes the animal needs, such as glucose, are pulled from the nephridium and enter into general circulation). Earthworms have a pair of nephridia in many of their body segments.
85
Organs of Excretion: what are Malpighian tubules
excretory organ of spiders and insects. series of blind tubes that extend off of the gut. They lack a blood supply, but are bathed in hemolymph.Salts are secreted into the tubules from the hemolymph. The salts in lumen of tubes pull water and dissolved substances into tube, which is then dumped into the digestive tract—into the rectum, where water and K+ are reabsorbed. The nitrogenous waste produced is uric acid; therefore, little water eliminated with waste.
86
organs of secretion: what is vertebrae excretion?
Many organs are involved in excretion in vertebrates but the primary organ is the kidney. major function of the kidney is the production of urine. Urine consists primarily of water, but has variety of substances in solution: e.g., nitrogenous waste; salt, and other metabolic wastes.
87
organs of excretion: vertebrae excretion- what are the different products released by kidneys?
ammonia, urea, and uric acid
88
organs of excretion: vertebrae excretion- what is nitrogenous waste?
obtained from metabolism of proteins (amino acids) and Nucleic Acids (nucleotides) that are eaten.
89
organs of excretion: vertebrae excretion- what is ammonia?
NH3, which readily pulls a H+ forming NH4+ = basic and toxic. Ammonia is very toxic and used as the nitrogenous waste only in those vertebrates in which it can be readily diluted—e.g., freshwater fish, larval amphibians.
90
organs of excretion: vertebrae excretion- what is urea?
produced from ammonia through series of enzymatic reactions in the liver. primary nitrogenous waste product in sharks, mammals, and many amphibians after metamorphosis. Urea is about a thousand times less toxic than ammonia, but still requires a significant amount of water to dilute.
91
organs of excretion: vertebrae excretion- what is uric acid?
used by birds and other reptiles (and insects and some spiders). The nitrogenous waste comes out of solution as a paste—requires relatively little water be eliminated in urine. white shit in bird shit.
92
organs of excretion: vertebrae excretion- what makes up kidney and explain it.
the nephron. has bowmans capsule which is double-layered cup structure that surrounds a capillary tuft, called glomerulus. which stems from renal artery and supplies blood to the nephron that provides the filtrate from which urine is formed. BC links to tube called convoluted tubule which then links to collecting duct. the CT is surrounded by capillary mess called peritubular capillary which is from glomerulus. the CT also has loop of henle(long ass loop) for greater []
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organs of excretion: vertebrae excretion- how does the nephron do urine formation? (4 steps)
1. filtration- glom caps have thin walls so the dissolved substances are put into BC
2. tubular secretion- not all waste in glom go into BC so when in pericaps the waste shit will be put into convu-tube. farther down convu-tube more waste materials
3. selective reabsorption- filtrated shit has needed body stuff so when in convoluted tubule those needed things will be taken out the unneeded stuff and put back in pericaps + into circu
4. concentration- Lots of electrolytes near bottom of collecting duct so H2O flows out of duct via aquaporins into kidney conserving fluid. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) comes from posterior pituitary gland by hypothalamus which opens and closes said aquaporin so when drinking you pee lots because you can't regulate ADH
94
organs of excretion: vertebrae excretion- what is hyperosmotic urine and how formed?
urine that is more concentrated than blood due to loop of henle extending from cortex to medulla of kidney. the longer this loop the more h2o conserved.
