Chap 2: Current Paradigms + Integrative Approaches Flashcards
1
Q
What is a paradigm?
What are 4 major ones?
A
A paradigm is a set of basic assumptions that define how to conceptualize and study a subject, gather and interpret relevant data and how to think about particular subject. Four major types: biological, cognitive-behavioural, psychoanalytic and humanistic.
2
Q
What is the biological paradigm? What are 3 areas of research in this paradigm?
A
The biological paradigm (medical/disease model) is a continuation of somatogenic hypothesis - mental disorders are caused by aberrant biological processes. There are 3 areas of research within this paradigm (behaviour genetics, molecular genetics and neuroscience/biochemistry.
3
Q
What is behaviour genetics? (biological paradigm)
A
Behavior genetics is the study of individual diffs in behaviour that are in part attributable to differences in genetics. Many clinical syndromes are disorders of phenotype not genotype and a predisposition (diathesis) may be inherited but not disorder itself.
4
Q
What are 4 basic methods within behaviour genetics? Describe them.
A
Behaviour genetics uses 4 basic methods: 1. Family method- genetic predisposition among family members. 2. Twin method - monozygotic (MZ) twins and dizygotic (DZ) twins are compared. When twins are similar diagnostically they are concordant. 3. Adoptees method - study children with abnormal disorders who were adopted and reared apart from parents. 4. Linkage analysis - study inheritance patterns of characteristics whos genetics are understood - genetic markers.
5
Q
What is molecular genetics?
A
Molecular genetics - tries specify the particular gene or genes involved and precise functions of these genes. Includes linkage analysis.
6
Q
What is temperament and the 3 styles outlined by Thomas and Chess? (biological paradigm)
A
Temperament is differences in reactivity and self-regulation. Thomas and Chess - 3 temperaments styles in young kinds 1) difficult child 2) easy and 3) hard to warm up. These have been linked with personality traits and tendencies with clear implications for understanding abnormal behavior.
7
Q
What are the 3 categories of adolescent boys as defined by Robins, John, Caspi, Moffitt and Stouthamer-Loeber?
A
John, Caspi, Moffitt and Stouthamer-Loeber found 3 types of categories of adolescent boys 1) resilient type (cope well) 2) overcontrolling (overly inhibited and prone to distress) and 3) under controlling (impulsive and can seem out of control at times.
8
Q
What is neuroscience?
A
Neuroscience - study of brain and NS.
9
Q
What are the 4 parts of a neuron?
A
Each neuron has 4 parts: 1) cell body 2) dendrites 3) axon(s) and 4) terminal buttons.
10
Q
What is a nerve impulse and what is a synapse?
A
Nerve impulse - change in electrical potential of cell. Synapse - between terminal endings of sending neuron and cell membrane of receiving neuron.
11
Q
What are neurotransmitters?
A
Terminal buttons of each axon have synaptic vesicles which are filled with neurotransmitters that allow nerve impulses to cross synapse. The cell membrane of postsynaptic cell has receptor sites that are configured for specific neurotransmitters. Sometimes messages are excitatory - lead to creation of nerve impulses and others are inhibitory - making postsynaptic cell less likely to fire. Inhibitory neurotransmitters act as mood stabilizers or balancers and excitatory ones stimulate brain. Some released neurotransmitters find way back to postsynaptic receptors and some are broken down by enzymes and some pumped back into presynaptic cell through reuptake.
12
Q
Which neurotransmitters are linked to disorders?
A
Several neurotransmitters are linked to psychopathology: norepinephrine - released in peripheral sympathetic NS - states of high arousal and involved in anxiety disorders. Serotonin - depression and dopamine in schizophrenia. GABA - inhibits some nerve impulses - implicated in anxiety disorders. Neurotransmitters are made via enzymes - too much or too little of neurotransmitters could be due to defects in metabolic steps. Or by errors in processes where transmitters are deactivated.
13
Q
What treatments are suggested in biological paradigm?
Describe deep brain stimulation.
How is neuroimaging important?
A
Prevention or treatment here should be possible by altering bodily functioning. The use of psychoactive drugs increase however and a concern is the rapid increase in prescription and use of psychoactive drugs in children and adolescents. Deep brain stimulation - planting battery-operated electrode in brain that deliver low-level electrical impulses - quite effective though unsure why. Neuroimaging is important to this paradigm also.
14
Q
What is reductionism?
A
Reductionism is a view that whatever is being studied can and should be reduced to its most basic elements or constituents. Advances in neuroscience have raised concerned that the role of psychological factors is not receiving enough consideration. Applied neuroscience model is most appropriate for severe mental disorders. Psychological problems need to be understood at multiple levels.
15
Q
What is behavioural paradigm?
A
Behavioural perspective - views abnormal behaviour as responses learned in same ways other human behaviour is learned.
16
Q
Who is Watson? (beahvioural)
A
Key figure in behaviourism
17
Q
What occured in reponse to introspection?(behavioral)
A
As a response to focus on introspection, in 1913 Watson promoted behaviourism instead by extrapolating from work done on animals.
18
Q
What is behaviourism?
A
Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour rather than on consciousness.
19
Q
What are 3 types of learning that attract research of psychs? (behavioural)
A
- classical conditioning - Pavlov - studied digestive systems in dogs - meat powder to elicit salivation - powder being the unconditioned stimulus and response to it - salivation - unconditioned response. When offering of meat powder is preceded by a bell, the sound of bell is the conditioned stimulus which elicits the salivary response - conditioned response. The CR usually differs somewhat from UCR. Extension happens to CR when repeated soundings of bell are not followed by powder - CR gradually disappears. Watson and Rayner - Little Albert - when Albert reached for white rat, a loud noise was made. Study suggests possible association between classical conditioning and certain emotional disorders. -2. operant conditioning - applies to behaviour that operates on environment. Skinner - reformulated the law of effect - shifting focus from linking of consequences - reflects his contention that stimuli do not so much get connected to responses as they become the occasions for responses to occur in past they have been reinforces - introduced concept of discriminative stimulus - external events that tell organism f it performs a behaviour a consequence will follow. He distinguished two types of reinforcement - positive - strengthening of tendency to respond by presentation of pleasant event. Negative reinforcement - strengthens response by removal or aversive event. Operant conditioning can produce abnormal behaviour ie. conduct disorder. 3. Modelling - imitating others - Bandura - witnessing someone perform certain activities can increase or decrease diverse kinds of behavior.
20
Q
What is behaviour therapy?
A
Behaviour therapy - applies procedures based on classical and operant conditioning to alter clinical problems.
21
Q
What is behaviour modification and the three (four) theoretical approaches?
A
Behaviour modification - employing operant conditioning as means of treatment. There are three theoretical approaches in behaviour therapy - modelling, counterconditioning and exposure and application of operant conditioning. Cognitive behaviour therapy is often considered a fourth.
22
Q
What is counterconditioning?
What is systematic desensitisation? What did Wolpe do?
What is aversive conditioning?
A
Counterconditioning is relearning achieved by eliciting a new response in the presence of a particular stimulus.
A response R1 to a stmlus S can be eliminated by eliciting a new response R2 in presence of that stimulus 0 this is behind therapy technique - systematic desensitization- Wolpe - person with anxiety works with therapist to compile list of feared situations and are taught to relax deeply and step by step imaging or experience these situations allowing them to tolerate more difficult ones -
Aversive - Stimulus attractive to client is paired with unpleasant ie. reduces substance abuse - torpedo) and exposure and application of operant conditioning (mostly used in kids - making positive reinforces contingent on behaviour).
23
Q
What is cognition?
A
Cognition - grounds mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging and reasoning.
24
Q
What is the cognitive paradigm (hint: schemas)?
A
Cognitive paradigm focuses on how people structure their experiences, make sense of them and relate them to past ones. Cognitive psychs consider learning process more complex in terms of response associations - regarding learner as active interpreter of situation with past knowledge having effect - learner fits new info into existing schema - cognitive sets - new info either fits or the learner fits schema to the info.
25
What is Beck’s cognitive therapy for depression?
Beck’s cognitive therapy for depression - based on idea depressed mood is caused by distortions in way people perceive life experiences - persuades clients to change opinions of themselves and way interpret life, goal is to provide clients with experiences that will alter their negative schemas and dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes.
26
What did Ellis believe?
What is his REBT?
Ellis believed that sustained emotional reactions are caused by negative mantras that can irrational beliefs about what is necessary to lead meaningful life.
In his rational-emotive behavior therapy - REBT - aim to eliminate self-defeating - demandingness people impose on self and others - after this therapy client can understand it - therapist also teaches person to substitute for irrational self statements and internal dialogue meant to ease turmoil - provide clients homework assignments to help experiment with new self talk and experience positive consequences of viewing life in better light.
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What is CBT?
CBT incorporates theory and research on cognitive and behavioural processes - blend of cognitive and learning principles - pays attention to private events, thoughts, perceptions, self-statements and unconscious (tacit) assumptions and manipulated these process to understand and modify disturbed behaviour.
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What is cognitive restructuring?
Cognitive restructuring is changing a pattern of thought that is causing a distribed emotion or behaviour
29
What is the psychoanalytic/psychodynamic paradigm?
developed by Freud - psychopathology results from unconscious conflicts in the individual. Classical psychoanalytic theory is his original views - encompassed the structure of mind and development and dynamics of personality.
30
What is classical psychoanalytic theory (Freud)?
Hints - id, ego, superego, pleasure principle, primary + secondary process thinking, reality principle, psychodynamics?
divides mind (psyche) into three parts, id, ego and superego. Id - present at birth - accounts for all energy needed to run psyche - basic urges - source of its energy is biological. ONly as infant develops this energy - libido - converted into psychic energy - all of it unconscious - below level of awareness - seeks immediate gratification and operates according to pleasure principle - when not satisfied - tension and strives to eliminate this. Another means of getting gratification is primary process thinking - generating images of desired - short term satisfaction. Ego is next to develop - primarily conscious and begins to develop from id in second six months of life - deals with reality - planning and decision-making - secondary process thinking - operates on reality principle - mediates demands of reality and immediate gratification desired by id. Superego - operates as conscience and develops throughout childhood from ego. Kids discover many of their impulses are not accepted by parents and incorporate their parents values. Behaviour is an interplay of the three - psychodynamics of personality. The ids instincts and many of superegos activities are not conscious. Ego is primarily conscious but has important unconscious aspects that protect it from anxiety.
31
What is objective vs. neurotic vs. moral anxiety? (psychdynamic)
When ones life is in danger - objective (realistic) anxiety - egos reaction to danger. A person whose personality is fixated at a stage may have neurotic anxiety - feeling of fear not connected to reality. Moral anxiety - arises when impulses of superego punish individual for not meeting expectation and not satisfying principle that drives superego - perfection principle.
32
What is a defence mechanism? Name some.
Freud believes anxious ego can be relieved in many ways - objective anxiety - removing or avoiding danger or dealing with it in rational way. Neurotic by a defence mechanism - strategy unconsciously used to protect ego from anxiety - repression - pushing away impulses into unconscious - denial - pushing traumatic experiences into unconscious - projection - external agents that an individual possess but cannot accept in conscious awareness - displacement - redirecting emotional responses from dangerous object to substitute - reaction formation - converting one feeling into opposite - regression - retreating to the behavioural patterns of earlier age - rationalization - inventing reason for unreasonable action and sublimation - converting sexual or aggressive impulses into socially valued behaviours especially creativity - these allow ego to discharge some id energy. Modern psychoactive theorists consider some use of these as adaptive and healthy.
33
What is classical psychoanalysis based on?
Classical psychoanalysis - based on Freud's theory of neurotic anxiety - reaction of ego when punished and repressed id impulse presses for expression.
34
What is psychoanalytic therapy?
What are some techniques to lift repressions?
What are resistances good for?
Psychoanalytic therapy is insight therapy - helps remove repression and help client face it, gain insight into it and resolve it. Some techniques to lift repressions include - free association - client reclines on couch facing away from analyst - free reign to thoughts - verbalizing without censoring - client may become silent or change topic - resistances - noted and assumed to signal a sensitive ego-threatening air.
35
What is dream analysis and latent content? (psychodynamic)
Dream analysis - ego defences are relaxed in sleep, allowing normally repressed material to enter sleepers consciousness - rarely allowed into consciousness but repressed material is disguised and dreams take on symbolic content - latent content.
36
What is transference? (psychodynamic)
What is countertransference?
Transference - clients responses to analyst reflect those with important people in clients past - analysts intentional remain shadowy figures - can gain insight into childhood origin of repressed conflicts. Countertransference - analysts feelings toward client - analyst must be aware of own feelings so they can see client clearly.
37
What is the point of interpretation? (psychodynamic)
Interpretation comes into play as repressed material appears - analyst points out to client meaning of certain defence mechanisms.
38
What techniques have been applied to groups? What issues arise?
Many therapies have been applied to groups ie. free association, interpretation and dream analysis. The group can be conceived as having collective set of psychodynamics manifested by group transference to theorist - however, dilutes transference to therapist from individuals.
39
What is ego analysis?
Ego analysis - Freud believed peoples interactions with environment are driven by intrapsychic urges - places emphasis on persons ability to control environment and select time and means for satisfying drives, person is as much ego as id - focus more on persons living conditions - believe in set of ego functions that are mostly conscious - capable of controlling id instincts and external environment and do not significantly depend on id for energy.
40
What is brief psychodynamic therapy? Ferenczi, Alexander and French. (psyhcodynamic)
Brief psychodynamic therapy - envisioned by Freud - early pioneer was Ferenczi, Alexander and French - brief therapy - developed to meet expectations of many clients - need to respond to psychological emergencies ike shell shock - assessment is rapid and early - made clear therapy will be limited and improvement is expected in 6-25 sessions - goals concrete and focused on worst symptoms - interpretations are directed more toward present life circumstances and client behaviour than on historical significance of feelings - transference not encouraged.
41
What are the 5 conceptual approaches in contemporary psychoanalytic thought? (psychodynamic)
Lerner identified 5 conceptual approaches predominant in contemporary psychoanalytic thought 1. Modern structural theory 2. Self-psychology 3. Object relations theory 4. Interpersonal-relational and 5) attachment.
42
What is interpersonal therapy? (psychodynamic)
Interpersonal therapy - variation of brief psychodynamic therapy - needs are interpersonal - whether met depends on complementary needs of others - clients basic difficulty is misperception of reality stemming from disorganization in interpersonal relationships of childhood - primarily between child and parents. Analyst is participant observer - focuses on past relationships to examine them in terms of how they have impact on current - IPT concentrates on clients current interpersonal difficulties and dicesses with them better ways ot relating to others - combines empathetic listening with suggestions for behavioural changes.
43
What are the 3 ways Freud’s influence is most present?
Freud's influence is most present as: 1. Childhood experiences help shape adult personalty 2. There are unconscious influences on behaviour 3. People use defence mechanisms to control anxiety or stress.
44
What is humanistic therapy?
Humanistic therapies are insight-focused, based on assumption disordered behaviour results from lack of insight and can best be treated by increasing individuals awareness of motivations and needs.
45
What does humanistic paradigm focus on?
Humanistic (phenomenological/esperiantial) paradigm places more emphasis on persons freedom of choice - free quill as most important characteristic but can not bring only fulfillment and please but pain and suffering - its exercise requires special courage - those who cannot meet this are candidates for client-centered and existential therapies - main focus is on intervention
46
What is Rogers’ client-centered therapy? And what assumptions is it based on?
Rogers’ client-centred therapy based on several assumptions: people can be understood only from vantage point of their own perceptions and feelings from phenomenological world - healthy people are aware of their behaviour - healthy people are innately good and effective - healthy people are purposive and goal-directed - therapists should not manipulate events for individuals, should facilitate independent decision making by client - lives are guided by innate tendency toward self-actualization. The believe focused on self-actualization, maximizing potential and belief people are innately good is positive psychology - emphasizes wellness and being able to function. Rogers’ avoided imposing goals on client - let client take lead - people must take responsibility for themselves even when troubled - persons innate capacity for growth and self-direction will assert itself if the therapeutic atmosphere is warm, attentive and receptive, especially if therapist accepts person for who they are providing unconditional positive regard. Two types of empathy - primary (therapists understanding, accepting and communicating to client what client is thinking or feeling - restating clients thoughts and feelings) and advanced empathy (interference by therapist of thoughts and feelings lying behind what client is saying.
47
What are some contributions Carl Roger's approach? (humanistic)
Contributions: development of practice-informed research measures and coding systems. Rogers - originating field of psychotherapy research - insisting outcomes should be evaluated and pioneered use of tape recordings - major prediction of his therapy is therapists empathy should relate to outcomes.
48
What is a consequence of adopting a paradigm?
What is Eclecticism?
: By adopting a paradigm you may ignore possibilities and look over info so many therapists subscribe to eclecticism - employing ideas and techniques from variety of paradigms - this trend in integrating psychotherapies has let to a combined approach - prescriptive eclectic therapy - the most common is cognitive therapy.
49
What are some parent-related factors that contribute to mental health vs. mental illness? (psychosocial) (hints: Familial factors, parental styles, parental marital discord, parental mental illness)
External factors play a role in contributing to mental health vs. mental illness. 1. Familial factors - parent-related factors contributing to risk or resilience ie. a) parenting styles - Baumrind identifies three - authoritarian parenting, permissive parenting and authoritative parenting - authoritarian and permissive leads to negative - authoritarian are restrictive, punitive and overcontrolling - kids respond to perceived harshness of parents with externalizing or internalizing problems - poorer intellectual and social development. Permissive parents - little involvement - disinterested in kids - associated with internalizing and externalizing symptom in kinds. Authoritative is most adaptive - parents use discipline with reason and warmth - guidelines are set but rationale is communicated in warm caring attitude. Mental health issues and behavioural problems among youth are linked with parenting style characterized by high expectations and parental criticism yet parents are neglectful and show lack of involvement - affluenza. b) parental marital discord - conflict in family implicated with poor mental health - stressors associated with living with single parent trying to cope with break up - can be more damaging if couple stays together when they shouldn't. Kids may experience emotional or physical abuse, exposure to domestic violence and child abuse linked with adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems - less impact when either in isolation. c) parental mental illnesss - good or bad days from parents - caregiving activities engaged in by siblings - bottled up emotions - kids hide them - pervasive fear - highly anxious existence involving chronic fears of violence or parental suicide - school as refuge - kids trying to save situation to maintain daily stability - lack of public interaction from stigma.
50
What is cumulative risk. What are impacts of peers and broader social environment? (sociocultural)
Cumulative risk - effects of being exposed to multiple factors. 2. Peers and Broader Social Environment - two elements: a) peer status and b) peer victimization. Popular kids are better adjusted. Negative peer status led to loneliness - predicts depression. Contemporary research focuses on feeling of social exclusion and how it relates to personality style known as rejection sensitivity- some people are hypersensitive to whether they are accepted or rejected by others. Peer victimization can take many forms including bullying - linked to loneliness and depression.
51
What is minority mental health?
People from minority groups differ from one another - a consideration of group characteristics is important - part of minority mental health.
52
What is multicultural counselling and therapy?
Theories of multicultural counselling and therapy incorporate these revisions into integrated perspective.
53
What is the Cultural Influences on Mental Health model good for?
The Cultural Influences on Mental Health model is important for understanding complexities of interrelationships among different domains of mental health - marked differences between prevalence of mental health problems among general Canadian Pop and first nations people - higher levels of mental health problems in First nations - some cultural and religious groups get attention for atypically low rates of mental disorders ie. the Hutterites.
54
What is the health immigrant effect?
Healthy immigrant effect - immigrants had lower rates of depression and alcohol dependence than Canadian born - kids who immigrate at early age have higher risk for mood disorders. Poor language proficiency, limited friendliness of neighbours and problems accessing health care is a risk factor and living in area with lower percentage of immigrants.
55
What is the best approach for paradigms?
Best approach is to assume multiple causations.
56
What are two integrative paradigms and describe them.
Two integrative paradigms: 1. Diatheses-Stress Paradigm - links biological, psychological, and environmental factors - focuses on interaction between predisposition for disease (diathesis) and environmental/life disturbances (stress). Diathesis refers to predisposition toward illness but may be extended to any characteristic or set of that increases persons chance of developing a disorder. Some biological ones: oxygen deprivation at birth, maternal smoking etc. Psychological diathesis can arise for many reasons and include hypnotizability sense of hopelessness. Having a diathesis increases persons risk of developing but does not guarantee disorder. Stress is some unpleasant environmental stimulus that triggers psychopathology. Differential susceptibility - some factors considered diathesis should be considered differential susceptibility factors because they involved the expected adverse reaction to negative experiences but also positive reactions to positive experiences. 2. Biopsychosocial paradigm - biological, psychological and social factors are conceptualized as diff levels of analysis or subsystems within paradigm - explanations for causes of disorders involve complex interactions among many of these factors. The variables and degree of influence of the variables from diff domains differ from disorder to disorder.
57
What is a paradigm?
Paradigm - set basic assumptions outline universe of scientific inquiry - dictate how we conceptualize and study - gather and interpret - think about subject.
58
What is the biological paradigm?
Biological Paradigm - continuation of somatogenic hypothesis - Hippocrates - mental disorders caused by defective biological processes - “medical model” - dominant in Canada and elsewhere. Pharmacological treatment.
59
What is behaviour genetics (in biological paradigm)?
Behavior Genetics - study of individual dfifs in behaviour attributable to diffs in genetics. Genotype - fixed at birth with variable activation. Phenotype = dynamic - interaction between genotype and environment..
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What is heritability (in biological paradigm)?
Heritability - proportion of variation in trait - attributed to genetic factors - determined by the twin method - bipolar heritability - 0.81. IQ - 50% genetics, 36% shared environment and 14% non-shared environment.
61
What is linkage analysis (in biological paradigm)?
Linkage analysis - isolating genes that contribute to patterns of abnormality. Study Toronto - OCD and GABA receptor association. Another study genetic linkage in adolescents - locus on chromosome 9 associated with enhanced risk for externalizing psychopathy (ie. aggression and conduct disorder).
62
What did John, Caspi, Moffett and Stouthamer-Loeber come up with (hint: temperament)?
Robins, John, Caspi, Moffett and Stouthamer-Loeber - 3 types of temperament 1) resilient type (easy child) - copes well with adversity, adaptive and high functioning 2) overcontrolling type (slow to warm up) - overly inhibited and prone to distress linked with shyness, loneliness and moderate self-esteem. 3) under controlling (difficult) - impulsive and out of control, prone to acting out, aggression, delinquency, school conduct difficulties and lower IQs.
63
What is neuroscience (in biological paradigm)?
Neuroscience - study of brain and NS - can focus on structural or functional elements - treatment - neurofeedback - brain operates at diff attentional frequencies - pattern when aller etc. on eeg - train people to notice this and learn to focus better.
64
What is behavioural paradigm?
behavioural - abnormal as responses learned in same way as other behavior. Classical conditioning - associative learning, operant conditioning - reward and punishment and modelling - observation of role model.
65
What is behavioural therapy (in behavioural paradigm)? What is systematic desensitization? What is aversive conditioning?
Behavioural therapy ( behavioural modification, counterconditioning or exposure) - achieved by eliciting a new response in presence of particular stimulus. Systematic desensitization - compile list of feared situation starting with minimal anxiety and progressing to most frightening. Aversive conditioning - stimulus attractive to clients is paired with unpleasant event.
66
Describe cognitive theory of cognitive-behavioural paradigm?
Cognitive - learner as active interpreter of situation - past experience limits learners perception of new experiences.
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What are Schema’s (in cognitive paradigm)?
new info is assimilated or accommodated.
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What is Beck’s cognitive therapy (in cognitive paradigm)?
Beck’s cognitive therapy - developed CT for depression - depressed mood caused by distortions in way people perceive life experiences, persuade clients to change their opinions to themselves and the way they interpret life events. “Just World hypothesis”.
69
Who was Albert Ellis (REBT) - Cognitive paradigm?
Albert Ellis - emotional reactions caused by autonomic instincts/feelings - reflect unspoken assumptions - abnormality created by irrational beliefs. REBT encourages analysis of unspoken assumptions - overcomes flaws in logic.
70
What is CBT and cognitive restructuring? (cognitive paradigm)
CBT - blend of cognitive and learning principles in varying degrees. Cognitive restructuring - changing pattern of thought presumed to be causing a disturbed emotion or behaviour.
71
What is the psychodynamic model?
Psychodynamic Model - oldest and most famous - based on believe that persons behavior is determined largely by underlying dynamic forces of which they are not conscious. Abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among these forces.
72
Describe Freud’s id, ego and superego in psychodynamic paradigm.
Founded by Freud - argues that psychopathology results from unconscious conflicts : Id - pleasure - instinctive drives (most basic levels) - accounts for all energy needed to run psyche (mind). Ego - reality - our personality, negotiate or deal with reality.Superego - morality - social imperatives (conscience) - develops through experience
73
What happens when ego is under threat? (psychodynamic paradigm)
What are defence mechanisms and name a few.
When ego is under threat - new situation - jarring to sense of self - Freud identified patterns people resort to when ego is under threat - temporary stop until we figure it out - if keep using them they get stronger and stronger - rather than developing appropriate element of personality- Defence mechanisms: Repression (pushes unacceptable impulses and thoughts into unconscious. Denial (disavowing traumatic experience and pushing it into unconscious). Projection (attributes to external agents characteristics or desires that an individual possesses but cant accept in his or ger conscious awareness - perceiving others through yourself). Displacement (redirecting emotional responses from a dangerous object to a substitute). Reaction formation (converting one feeling into opposite). Regression (retreating to behavioural patterns of earlier age). Rationalization (inventing reason for an unreasonable action or attitude). Sublimation (converting sexual or aggressive impulses into socially valued behaviours).
74
What were Freud’s developmental stages?
Freud's developmental stages - proposed at each stage of development new events and pressures require adjustment in id, ego and superego. If successful -> personal growth, If unsuccessful -> fixation at early development stage - leads to psychological abnormality - because parents are key figures in early life they are often seen as the cause. Oral (0-18 monghts), Anal (18 mos to 3 years) - feels good to poop - must poop appropriately as per superego - id just wants to go wherever - no regulation - if have parents that are overcontrolling and harshly scold kid - kid may hold it all in - control everything - everything in neat and order - society around more important- anally retentive (very rigid, structured, patterns/routines, everything in order - defines personality) - anally expulsive (asshole). Phallic (3-5 years) - discover genitals - become obsessed with opposite - ie. boys focus all attention on mom and girls on dads - seeking attention of opposite sex parent - if they can control this parent - too far - but the other parent will not let kid completely monopilize other parents attention - if cannot get any attention from other parent they dont oppose or fight for goals - always give up - complete pushover - pussy - opposite - people who seize goals and trample opposition - dick/cunt - aggressive- Latency (5 to 13 years) - Genital (12 to adulthood)
75
What new theories developed from Freud’s ideas (ego theorists, self therrists, object-relations theorists)?
New theories depart from his ideas in important ways - each retains belief that human functioning is shaped by dynamic (interacting) forces: Ego theorists - emphasize role of ego, consider it independent and powerful. Self theorists - emphasize the unified personality. Object-relations theorists - emphasize human need for relationships especially between children and caregivers.
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What are transitional objects (psychodynamic)?
Transitional objects help us work through things in life ie. teddy bears and kids.
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What were the pro’s and con’s of psychodynamic paradigm?
Assessing psychodynamic approach - strengths - recognize importance of psychological theories and treatment, saw abnormal functioning as rooted in same processes as normal functioning, frist to apply theory and techniques systematically to treatment (system) - monumental impact on field - talk therapies still used, abnormality had same roots as normality. Weaknesses - unsupported ideas; difficult to research, non-observable - inaccessible to human subject (unconscious) - rigid model
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What is the humanistic paradigm?
Similar to psychoanalytic therapies in that they are insight-focused - disordered behavior results from lack of insight - can best be treated by increasing individuals awareness of motivations and needs. Psychodynamic however, believes human nature is something in need of restraint. Humanistic and existential paradigms - place greater emphasis on persons choice, free will as the persons most important characteristic. Exercising freedom of choice takes courage and can generate pain and suffering - approach seldoms focuses on cause of problems.
79
What was Carl Roger’s Client-Centered Therapy?
What are some key features of it (hint: unconditional positive regard, empathy and empowerment).
What were pro’s and con’s of his therapy?
Carl Roger’s Client-Centered Therapy - person-centered therapy - assumes people can only be understood from vantage point of their own perceptions and feelings - healthy people are aware of their behaviour are innately good and effective and are purposive and goal-directed - therapists should not attempt to manipulate events for the individual. Key features - unconditional positive regard, empathy and empowerment. Empathy: primary empathy - understanding and accepting what the client is thinking or feeling - involves restating individuals thoughts or feelings. Advanced empathy - entails an inference by the therapist of the thoughts and feelings that lie behind what the client is saying and of which the client may only be dimly, if at all aware - borrowing a bit from psychodynamic theory - therapist recognizes pattern or makes a suggestion. If unconditional positive regard is received - leads to unconditional self-regard - if not 0 leads to conditions of worth - incapable of self-actualization because of distortion - do now know what they really need.In his therapy - therapist creates supportive climate - unconditional positive regard - accurate empathy - genuineness - little research support but positive impact on clinical practice.
Strengths - tamps into domains missing from other theories - emphasizes individual - optimistic - emphasizes health. Weaknesses - focuses on abstract issues - difficult to research - weakened by disapproval of scientific approach - changing somewhat.
Sociocultural Models
80
What are sociocultural models?
| What are the two major perspectives of it?
rgue abnormal behavior is best understood in light of social and cultural forces that influence individual - address norms and roles in society - comprised of two major perspectives - Family-social perspective and multicultural perspective. Family-social theorists - concentrate on forces that operate directly on individual including social labels and roles, diagnostic labels and social connections and supports. Focuses on family structure and communication - abnormal functioning within family leads to abnormal behaviour (insane behaviour becomes sane in an insane environment) - ie. enmeshed, disengaged structures - helped the growth of group therapy, family therapy, couple therapy and community treatment - prevention work.
81
What do multicultural theorists believe (sociocultural model)>
Multicultural theorists - culture = values, attitudes, beliefs history and behaviours shared by group of people and communicated from one generation to the next. This perspective emerged as a growing field of study - multicultural psychs seek to understand how culture, race, ethnicities, gender and similar factors affect behaviour and thought as well as how people of diff cultures, races and genders differ psychologically. Holds that individuals behaviour is best understood when examined in light of that individuals unique cultural context. Also notices prejudice and descrimination faced by minorities may contribute to certain forms of abnormal functioning.
82
What are two ways that can increase therapists effectiveness with minority clients (sociocultural model)?
Also notices prejudice and descrimination faced by minorities may contribute to certain forms of abnormal functioning. Studies found members of ethnic and racial minority groups show less improvement in clinical treatment than members of majority groups - two features of treatment can increase a therapists effectiveness with minority clients - greater sensitivity to cultural issues - inclusion of cultural models in treatment, especially in therapies for children and adolescents.
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What are pro’s and con’s of sociocultural model?
Strengths of sociocultural model: added greatly to understanding and treatment of abnormality - increased awareness of clinical and social roles - clinically successful when other treatments have failed. Weaknesses - research is difficult to interpret -correlation does not mean causation - model unable to predict abnormality in specific individuals.
84
What are the two main integrative paradigms?
Integrative Paradigms - two main - diathesis-stress paradigm (biological inclinations and environment interact to produce dysfunction/disorders) and biopsychosocial - both emphasize interplay between biological, psychological and social/environmental perspectives.
