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401 MICROBIO EXAM 1 > chapter 1 > Flashcards

chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Fred Sanger

A

*first method of DNA sequencing fast enough to sequence large genomes
*1995 first genome sequence of Haemophilus influenza
~1980 noble prize in chem (shared)

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2
Q

prokaryotes

A

~cells lacking a nucleus
~bacteria, archaea

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3
Q

eukaryotes

A

~cells with nucleus
~algae, fungi, protists

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4
Q

viruses and prions

A

acellular entities

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5
Q

metagenomes

A

collections of sequences from diverse populations of microbes directly from environment

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6
Q

lithotrophs

A

~(chemo-) organisms that feed solely on inorganic minerals
“rock eating” bacteria helped in mining and (con) deteriorating ancient stone monuments
~copper (bacterial leaching)

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7
Q

14th century

A

bubonic plague
Yersinia pestis

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8
Q

19th century

A

tuberculosis
Myobacterium tuberculosis

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9
Q

Today

A

AIDS/HIV, COVID-19

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10
Q

Florence Nightingale

A

~founded the science of medical statistics and professional nursing
~polar area chart to show causes of deaths in Crieman war
~sanitation shows statistical correlation with mortality 1855

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11
Q

Robert Hooke

A

~built first compound microscope, to observe mold filaments, nematodes “vinegar eels”, mites
~”cell” cuz it looked like cells in monastery
~Micrographia (drawings of observations)

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12
Q

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

A

~observe bacteria with single lens
~1st to observe single-celled microbes
~his teeth
~ground his own lenses stronger than Hooke’s

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13
Q

Spontaneous Generation

A

concept that living creatures like maggots arose spontaneously w/o parental organisms

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14
Q

Francesco Redi

A

italian priest showed maggots in decaying meat were offspring of flies
~meat kept in sealed container (except flies) did not produce maggots
~disproved spontaneous generation for macroscopic organisms

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15
Q

Lazaro Spallanzani

A

~italian priest to disprove SG showed a sealed flask of meat broth sterilized by boiling failed to grow microbes
~noticed microbes are often in pairs; watched a single microbe grow in size till it split into two= cell fission
~ppl didn’t believe him cuz flask was sealed no air

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16
Q

Louis Pasteur

A

~disproved SG; founder of medical microbiology and immunology
~basically used Spallanzani experiment with tweaks; used a swan neck flask with boiled broth to show that its contents had no microbial growth despite access to air
~discovered microbial basis of FERMENTATION

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17
Q

Swan Neck flask experiment

A
  1. broth boiled to kill all microbes (air enters through tube)
  2. after a year, no microbes appeared (microbes trapped in curve of tube)
  3. flask was tipped to allow broth to reach microbes
  4. microbes quickly multiplied
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18
Q

Fermentation

A

~process where microbes gain energy by converting sugars into alcohol
~Pasteur discovered it was caused by living yeast; when no oxygen it produces alcohol, but when contaminated with bacteria it produced vinegar (since bacteria outgrew yeast)

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19
Q

John Tyndall

A

~did swan neck but used hay infusion instead of the same broth, found opposite results; microbes not dying cuz heat resistant~> endospores (which was later discovered to be killed under pressure; autoclave)

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20
Q

Miller and Urey

A

1950s experiment tryna copy archaic earth’s atmospheric conditions; able to synthesize 5/20 amino acids

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21
Q

earth’s 1st living orgs arose from nonliving material

A

evidence form microfossils and chemical simulations like miller and urey support that origin of microbial life w/in 1st 100 million years of earth’s existence

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22
Q

Germ theory of disease

A

theory that many diseases are caused by microbes

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23
Q

Robert Koch

A

developed principles and methods crucial to microbial investigation; applied his methods to study of several lethal diseases around the world
~chain of infection
~Koch’s postulates

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24
Q

Chain of infection

A

~transmission of a disease

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25
Koch' Postulates
~Koch working with anthrax; used blood from anthrax-infected cow carcass to inoculate a rabbit, when rabbit died, he used its blood to infect a second rabbit who also died (blood turned black with rod shaped bacilli) (beginning stages) ~later while working to find cause of tuberculosis refined it 1. microbe is present in diseased individuals; but not in healthy ones 2. microbe is isolated from diseased and grown in PURE CULTURE 3. microbe introduced in healthy individual will then get sick with same disease 4. same strain of microbe is obtained from newly diseased host and cultured~showing same culture (con; asymptomatic ppl, not all microbes can be grown in pure culture, disease usually varies with differing species)
26
Angeline and Walther Hesse
first used agar to make solid-substrate media for bacterial growth
27
Barry Marshall
ingested Heliobacter pylori to convince ppl it could colonize the acidic stomach~ found out it caused ulcers
28
Julius Petri
developed double-sided Petri dish container
29
Lady Mary Montagu
1717 introduced practice of smallpox inoculation in Europe from Turkey (practices originally from Asia and Africa) (virus is "attenuated" in the period it is outside its host as it loses some of its molecular structure)
30
Onesimus
~enslaved in America (form the Coromantee ppl of Africa) ~convinced his enslaver to promote smallpox inoculation as a defense against the epidemic devastating Boston
31
Edward Jenner
~proved claims of milkmaids that they were protected from smallpox after contracting cowpox by deliberately infecting patients with matter from cowpox lesions
32
vaccination
~practice of cowpox inoculation, after the vaccinia virus (vacca~cow)
33
Louis Pasteur (2)
~developed first vaccines based on attenuated strains of bacteria while working with fowl cholera (affected chickens)
34
Immunization
stimulation of an immune response by deliberate inoculation with an attenuated pathogen
35
Ignaz Semmelweis
~noticed that death rate of women in childbirth was higher in his hospital compared to birthing center run by midwives; instructed his doctors to clean hands with chlorine (antiseptic agent; chemical killing microbes) and mortality rate fell
36
Joseph lister
surgeon who noticed amputee patients kept dying due to sepsis, so he experimented to develop antiseptic agents~ most successful was CARBOLIC ACID used to treat wounds and surgical instruments
37
aseptic
environments completely free of microbes
38
Alexander Fleming
~while working with Staphylococcus discovered penicillin (first commercial antibiotic saving human lives); found out that Penicillium mold generated substances that killed bacteria but not human cells
39
Howard Florey and Ernst Chain
purified penicillin molecule and found out that it inhibits formation of bacterial cell wall
40
why do you think some pathogens generate immunity readily, whereas others evade the immune system?
some pathogens have external coat proteins that strongly stimulate the immune system and induce the production of antibodies. other pathogens have evolved to avoid immune system by changing their external proteins. immunity varies greatly with the host's status. the very young and very old generally have weaker immune systems. some pathogens like HIV will directly attack the host's immune system, limiting the immune response to the pathogen.
41
how do you think microbes protect themselves from the antibiotics they produce?
microbes protect themselves from their antibiotics by producing other own resistance factors. microbes may synthesize pumps to pump the antibiotics or they may make altered versions of the target macromolecule, like their ribosome subunit; or they may produce enzymes to cleave the antimicrobial substance
42
Dmitiri Ivanovsky and Martinus Beijernick
discovered viruses as filterable infective particles while studying tobacco mosaic disease; figured out its not a bacteria cuz it passed through a filter that retains bacteria ~MB also first person to describe endosymbiosis when he observed rhizobia within cells of legumes to form root nodules (which fix nitrogen into ammonia which the legumes can use)
43
Wendell Stanley
purified and crystallized the filterable causative agent we now call tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) found out it’s composed of protein and RNA
44
intro to environment and ecology
~microbes cycle all global nitrogen gas and most of the oxygen in earth's atmosphere ~0.1% of all species can be cultured in a lab; the remainder make up the majority of earth's biosphere ~only the outer skin of earth supports complex multicellular life
45
Sergei Winogradsky
~discovered lithotrophs/chemolithotrophs; could not be grown on Koch's media (agar/gelatin) ~> cultured nitrifiers on a completely inorganic solution containing ammonia and silica gel (which supported no other kind of organism)
46
enrichment culture
~discovered by winogradsky ~the use of selective growth media that support certain classes of microbial metabolism while excluding others
47
Winogradsky column
~a model of a wetland ecosystem containing regions of enrichment for microbes utilizing diverse metabolisms ~a glass tube containing mud (source of wetland bacteria) mixed with shredded newspaper (organic carbon source) and calcium salts of sulfate and carbonate (inorganic carbon source for autotrophs)
48
geochemical cycling
the global interconversion of inorganic and organic forms of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and other minerals
49
nitrogen fixation
~bacteria and archaea fix nitrogen (N2) by reducing it to ammonia (NH3) which can be assimilated by plants
50
why don't all living organisms fix their own nitrogen? consider the structure of N2 (it has a triple bond)
nitrogen fixation needs hella energy, abt 30 molecules of ATP/N2 converted to ammonia. in a community containing adequate nitrogen sources, organisms that lose the nitrogen fixation pathway make more efficient use of their energy reserves than do those that spend energy to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. another consideration is that nitrogenase is an oxygen-sensitive enzyme, while plants, animals, and fungi are aerobes. in order to fix nitrogen, aerobic orgs need to develop complex mechanisms to keep oxygen away from nitrogenase
51
biofilms
organized multispecies communities adhering to a surface
52
could endosymbiosis occur today; that is, could a small microbe be engulfed by a larger one and evolve into an endosymbiont, and then into an organelle?
many examples of endosymbiotic associations that look like evolution of an interdependent relationship ~one ex. paramecium can acquire internalized chlorella algae that conduct photosynthesis and provide nutrients for the protozoan host, but in darkness the paramecium may digest the chlorella for food ~another ex. Wolbachia bacteria has evolved as endosymbionts of insect cells; in some cases the insects really need bacteria to provide amino acids, but digests them when nutrients are no longer needed ~other insects host permanent endosymbiotic bacteria like Buchnera (via vertical transmission), these permanent ones are on their way to evolving into organelles (like mitochondria)
53
Carolus Linnaeus
botanist (famous classifier of species) call microbial world 'chaos'
54
Classifying microbes
very challenging 1. resolution of light microscope too low 2. microbial species are hard to define
55
Ernst Haeckel
~microbes are neither plants nor animals ~third category of life = Monera, for microbes
56
Herbert Copeland
divided Haeckel's Monera into two groups; eukaryotic protists (protozoa and algae) and prokaryotic bacteria
57
Robert Whittaker
added fungi as the 5th kingdom of eukaryotic microbes (so now there's bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and animals)
58
Lynn Margulis
~modified the 5 kingdom system by proposing the ENDOSYMBIOSIS THEORY; eukaryotic organelles (ie mitochondria and chloroplasts) evolved by endosymbiosis from prokaryotic cells engulfed by pre-eukaryotes ~highly controversial since it implied a polyphyletic ancestry of living species instead of long-held assumption that species evolve through monophyletic ancestry ~DNA sequence showed compelling evidence showing mitochondria and chloroplasts had similar circular molecules of DNA like bacteria
59
Carl Woese
1977 named newly discovered prokaryotes living in hot springs producing methane ARCHAEA (analysis of their 16S rRNA revealed they were a distinct form of life) ~replaced the 5 kingdoms into 3 domains; bacteria, archaea, and eukarya
60
Ernst Ruska
developed the ELECTRON MICROSCOPE which revealed internal structure of cells
61
Theodore Svedburg
developed ULTRACENTRIFUGE which enabled separation of subcellular parts
62
Frederic Griffith
discovered bacterial transformation (live bacteria took up something [DNA] from dead bacteria and then started showing the traits of the dead bacteria)
63
Oswald Avery and colleagues
showed that the transforming substance (observed by Griffith) is DNA
64
Rosalind Franklin
used X-ray crystallography to determine that DNA is a double helix
65
James Watson and Francis Crick
(Maurice Wilkins basically stole Rosalind Franklin's work and showed them ugh) anyway found the complementary bases and antiparallel nature of DNA
66
DNA sequencing
the reading of a sequence of DNA base pairs ~was developed after the discovery of complementary pairing of DNA
67
RNA world
hypothetical world without DNA; hypothesized that cells used RNA for all functions of DNA and protein (information storage and replication and biochemical catalysis~> ribozymes)
68
DNA revolution began with bacteria
1. bacteria readily combine DNA from unrelated organisms; recombinant DNA enabled us to transfer genes 2. bacterial DNA polymerases are used for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of DNA 3. Gene regulation discovered in bacteria provided models for animals and plants
69
Nitrogen fixation (ch4)
1. nitrogenase fix atmospheric N2 to ammonia (NH4+) (nitrogen fixers-> rhizobium) 2. Nitrifiers (Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter) oxidize ammonia to generate energy 3. Denitrifiers (Paracoccus) use oxidized forms (nitrate) as alternative electron acceptors

401 MICROBIO EXAM 1 (1 decks)

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