Chapter 1 & 2: Psychology and scientific thinking/ Research Methods Flashcards

Question

What is confirmation Bias:

Answer 1

Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our belies and deny, dismiss or distort evidence that contradicts them.

Answer 2

Tendency to stick to our initial beliefs, even when evidence contradicts them

Answer 3

Claims that are not testable

Answer 4

Is there an afterlife? does God exist? What is the moral thing to do?

Answer 5

tentative (not certain or fixed; provisional)

Answer 6

replicated

Answer 7

slowly, piece by piece

Answer 8

Set of claims that seem scientific but aren't.

Answer 9

internet information, news articles, self-help books, and movies.

Answer 10

often, untested

Answer 11

safeguards against biases

Answer 12

"EAT OLÉ" Exaggerated claims Anecdotes (Overreliance on) Talk of "proof" instead of evidence Overuse of ad hoc immunizing hypotheses Lack of self-correction Évidence (Absence of proper)

Answer 13

Add explanations and immunize their claims. A hypothesis is added to a theory in order to save it from being falsified.

Answer 14

we search for order in a complex world. We find comfort in our beliefs.

Answer 15

we use emotions as guides to evaluate a claim

Answer 16

accept a claim because many people believe it

Answer 17

the belief that we are immune from errors that afflict other people. Known as blind spot bias

Answer 18

Opportunity cost, direct harm, an inability to think scientifically

Answer 19

people are led to forgo opportunities to seek effective care. They resort to other ways of dealing with the problem - usually a more natural remedy

Answer 20

Directly harming the individual or making the problem worse, causing other problems. This can cuase psychological and physiological problems and in some cases even death.

Answer 21

failure to think critically. Important to develop these critical thinking skills.

Answer 22

failure to think critically. Important to develop these critical thinking skills.

Answer 23

Evaluating all claims with an open mind, but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them as true. to refrain from accepting inadequately supported claims.

Answer 24

Scientific thinking principle #1 consider alternative explanations for findings

Answer 25

Scientific thinking principle #2 just because two things are associated - or correlated - does not mean that one causes the other

Answer 26

scientific thinking principle #3 Must be possible to disprove a claim. applies to claims, hypotheses, and theories

Answer 27

Scientific thinking Principle #4 psychological findings must be reproduced. Findings can occur by chance so this is a way to confirm the results

Answer 28

If a claim goes against what we already know, the evidence for the claim must be strong. (alien abductions - not good evidence, only self - reports)

Answer 29

Principle #6 When several explanations account for a phenomenon, the simplest explanation is often the best when the others can't back anything up.

Answer 30

describe, explain, predict and control events

Answer 31

any factor or attribute that can assume two or more values. something in the world that varies

Answer 32

identifies and provides an account of some phenomenon of interest, and its characteristics. psychologists describe what humans think and how they behave

Answer 33

scientists seek to understand why phenomena occur

Answer 34

testable explanation derived from a theory

Answer 35

an explanation or a large number of findings in the natural world. a clearly put statement which explains why things are related the way they are

Answer 36

Use of knowledge about events or variables to predict an outcome of interest

Answer 37

influence over research settings, procedures, and application of scientific knowledge

Answer 38

Research activities: variables, participants, experimental setting Application of scientific knowledge

Answer 39

Making sure that cause-effect relationship identified in the study is really there and there are no other explanations for the results.

Answer 40

"Wax tablet" the analogy of memory - conceptualizing memory as an imperfect yet mailable substance like wax

Answer 41

Associations between ideas - memory comprised of links between ideas. (something may remind you of something else similar or the opposite)

Answer 42

Dualism: the mind as distinct from matter. Neuroscientists now look at the brain as matter and energy which can be measured

Answer 43

participants carefully reflect and report on their inner sensations and experiences

Answer 44

broad, theoretical perspectives that guide how people think about psychological phenomena and behavior

Answer 45

School of psychology that aimed to identify the basic element of psychological experiences. used introspection as the main method

Answer 46

disagreement among introspectionist imageless thought

Answer 47

periodic table of psychological elements - wants to make psych more of a real science. interested in structural components of the mind and used introspection to do so

Answer 48

attempted systematic observation

Answer 49

Focused on the functions and adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics such as thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. (asked why instead of what)

Answer 50

Darwin/evolution by natural selection

Answer 51

The scientific study of observable behavior. focused on discovering general laws of learning. founded by John Watson

Answer 52

Went too far by suggesting that everything is learned

Answer 53

clarifies learning principles brought a focus on the observable verifiable subject matter

Answer 54

understanding thinking is central to understanding behavior

Answer 55

focuses on internal psychological processes of which we are unaware. unconscious memories and drives cause behavior. founded by Sigmund Freud.

Answer 56

the question of whether our behaviors attribute mostly to our genes or to our rearing environments

Answer 57

the idea that we can play an active role and have a choice in how we behave.

Answer 58

the view that free will is an illusion, and that our behavior is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control.

Answer 59

Examines the fundamental nature of phenomena

Answer 60

helps to solve or evaluate a specific real-world problem

Answer 61

avoid biases when evaluating information and attempt to see the world as it really is

Answer 62

quick and reflexive; dekiberate. Requires little mental effort.

Answer 63

quick and reflexive. requires little mental effort.

Answer 64

slow and reflective; deliberate. requires mental effort

Answer 65

over-reliance leads to errors. research methods can help to avoid the pitfalls of intuitive thinking.

Answer 66

How we specify our phenomenon or construct of interest?

Answer 67

what a researcher is measuring. defining a variable in terms of the procedures used to measure or manipulate it.

Answer 68

different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically watched and recorded

Answer 69

watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation

Answer 70

the observer becomes a part of the group or social setting being studied

Answer 71

researchers configure the setting in which behavior will be observed

Answer 72

watching behaviour in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation

Answer 73

The extent to which the research findings apply in the real world

Answer 74

the extent to which findings apply to other contexts besides the research setting

Answer 75

ecological and external validity

Answer 76

ability to draw cause and effect inerences

Answer 77

when the process of observing behavior causes that behavior to change

Answer 78

lack of internal validity and reactivity

Answer 79

quick and reflexive. requires little mental effort.

Answer 80

quick and reflexive. requires little mental effort.

Answer 81

- Existence proofs - In-depth exploration - The flexibility of data collection techniques - Provide supporting or disconfirming evidence - Provide insights or “leads” for researchers to further investigate

Answer 82

- can not systematically test hypotheses - can not draw causal inferences - problems with generalizability

Answer 83

uses questionnaires to gather information about people. can be descriptive or used to test hypotheses

Answer 84

refers to all the cases or observations of interest to us

Answer 85

a subset of cases or observations from the population

Answer 86

reflects the important characteristics of the population

Answer 87

a procedure that ensures that every person in a population has equal chance of being chosen to participate

Answer 88

the consistency of a measurement consistency when consistency is expected measures can be reliable but inaccurate

Answer 89

administer the same measure to the same participants on two or more occasions, under equivalent conditions

Answer 90

the extent to which independent raters or observers agree in their assessments

Answer 91

the extent to which a measure assesses what It purports to measure

Answer 92

validity - measuring the underlying construct Reliability - consistency Reliability is necessary for the validity

Answer 93

items are presented in an inbalances way that can suggest one viewpoint or response if preferable to another

Answer 94

items that contain emotionally charged words that suggest one viewpoint or response is preferable to another, or they contain assumptions with which option to disagree is not provided

Answer 95

items that ask about two issues within one question, forcing respondents to combine potentially different opinions into one judgment

Answer 96

items whose phrasing contains two negative words

Answer 97

- convenient - : retrieve information from a wide variety of people and cover more ground quicker - often work well - appropriate: many question need to be asked directly

Answer 98

- lack of personal insight - they don’t know as much about themselves as they think. May not know about consistency - self-report measures assume honesty in responses: social desirability and bias – social context is cared about (ex: do you recycle as much as you say you do?)

Answer 99

a tendency to respond in a way that a person feels is socially appropriate rather than as the person truly feels

Answer 100

A research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated. the statistical association between variables. scores are associated in non random fashion

Answer 101

higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be associated with higher scores or levels of another variable As X increases, Y increases; As X decreases, Y decreases

Answer 102

higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be associated with lower scores or levels of another variable As X increases, Y decreases; As X decreases, Y increases

Answer 103

no association between variables

Answer 104

A statistic that measures the direction and strength of the linear relationship between two variables

Answer 105

A graph that portrays the intersection of data on two variables for a single individual

Answer 106

The perception of a statistical association between two variables when none exists

Answer 107

Salience of events We don’t tend to detect or remember “non-events”

Answer 108

belief says that thoughts, feelings, and consciousness are not separate things, but are simply the result of physical processes happening in the brain. It denies the existence of a "mind" or "soul" as a separate entity from the physical body. In simpler terms, it argues that everything that makes us who we are, including our thoughts and emotions, can be explained by physical processes in the brain.

Answer 109

to make psychology a hard science.

Answer 110

a way of thinking about the human mind as a mysterious container that takes in information and produces behavior, but the process in between is unknown. It's like a box where you put something in one end and get something else out the other end, but you don't know exactly what happens inside the box. This idea was used in the early days of psychology to study behavior without worrying about the complex thoughts and feelings going on inside the mind. In other words, psychologists would look at what people did and not try to guess what they were thinking.

Answer 111

Understanding thinking is central to understanding behavior. A response to behaviorist ideas.

Answer 112

Cognitive psychology and neuroscience combined. Examines the relation between brain functioning and thinking.

Answer 113

focuses on internal psychological processes o which we are unaware.

Answer 114

1. Unconscious memories and drives cause behavior 2. founded by Sigmund Freud

Answer 115

Focuses on unconscious drivers of bahaviour

Answer 116

- Freud's "unconscious" processes are not the same as scientifically demonstrated non-conscious determinants of behavior - Many unscientific claims which are not testable

Answer 117

Helps to solve or evaluate a specific real-world problem

Answer 118

Examines the fundamental nature of phenomena. Contributes to the core body of knowledge.

Answer 119

Whether stress levels influence how often students engage in academic cheating. How caffeine consumption affects the brain. Whether men or women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression.

Answer 120

A study looking for ways to market products for millennials. certain lighting and music to make customers sit around longer (addressing real-world issues)

Answer 121

the extent to which the research findings apply in the real world

Answer 122

the extent to which findings apply to other contexts besides the research setting

Answer 123

- Examines one person or a small number of people in depth often over an extended period of time - an in-depth analysis of an individual, social unit, event, or some other phenomenon (comprehensive examination of a single case)

Answer 124

- existence proofs (proof shit can happen) - in-depth exploration - flexibility of data collection techniques - provide supporting or disconfirming evidence - provide insights or "leads" for researchers to further investigate

Answer 125

- Cannot systematically test hypotheses - Observer bias - Cannot draw causal inferences - Problems with generalizability

Answer 126

uses questionnaires to gather information about people

Answer 127

- personality traits - beliefs about distracted driving - depression

Answer 128

descriptive or can be used to test hypotheses (a supposition or explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation)

Answer 129

refers to all the cases or observations of interest to us

Answer 130

a subset of cases or observations from the population

Answer 131

reflects the important characteristics of the population

Answer 132

a procedure that ensures that every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

Answer 133

the whole world or a select population of interest. The group we are interested in as a whole

Answer 134

The consistency of a measurement (tool) consistency when consistency is expected. Measures can be reliable but inaccurate

Answer 135

test-retest interrater reliability

Answer 136

administer the same measure to the same participants on two or more occasions, under equivalent conditions

Answer 137

The extent to which independent raters or observers agree in their assessments

Answer 138

Inter reliability

Answer 139

- Personality characteristics (extraverted In Jan should be extraverted in June)

Answer 140

bathroom scale

Answer 141

the field of psychology devoted to testing, measurement, assessment and related activities.

Answer 142

the extent to which a measure assesses what it appears to measure

Answer 143

Reliability

Answer 144

Associate, related, linked

Answer 145

Variables are measured, not manipulated

Answer 146

a perfect correlation

Answer 147

the same thing (speed of the car and how hard you push the gas pedal)

Answer 148

malnutrition which could be correlated with low IQ and small feet

Answer 149

Make an effort to look into research - ask how things are measured.

Answer 150

statistics (we perceive patterns that do not exist. and we fail to notice patterns that do exist)

Answer 151

statistics (we perceive patterns that do not exist. and we fail to notice patterns that do exist)

Answer 152

The perception of a statistical association between two variables when none exists

Answer 153

Association between the full moon and strange occurrences

Answer 154

Superstition

Answer 155

Salience (things that stand out that we tend to notice) of events. We don't tend to detect or remember "non-events"

Answer 156

we have to engage in system 2 thinking (analytical/critical thinking). The media will say what they have to say and what will be "popular"

Answer 157

we have to engage in system 2 thinking (analytical/critical thinking). The media will say what they have to say and what will be "popular"

Answer 158

causal inferences: the process of drawing a conclusion that a specific treatment (i.e., intervention) was the “cause” of the effect (or outcome) that was observed.

Answer 159

manipulate variables

Answer 160

1. Random Assignment of participants to conditions 2. Manipulation of an independent variable

Answer 161

- The researcher manipulates one or more variables, attempts to control factors, and then measures how the manipulated variables affect participants’ responses - Participants are randomly assigned to groups

Answer 162

the variable manipulated by the researcher. The presumed cause in the cause-and-effect relationship

Answer 163

- the response that is measured, to determine whether the independent variable has produced an effect - The presumed effect in the cause-and-effect relationship

Answer 164

The participants in the experiment are randomly sorted into groups

Answer 165

The group of participants that receives the manipulation

Answer 166

the group of participants that does not receive the manpulation

Answer 167

process of carrying out research in an objective and controlled fashion so that precision is maximized and specific conclusions can be drawn regarding a hypothesis statement.

Answer 168

a variable that is not controlled for in an experiment or study and that may be affecting the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Confounding variables can cause spurious correlations and can lead to false conclusions about causality.

Answer 169

a study that examines the relationship between hours of sleep and academic performance. If the study only takes into account hours of sleep and academic performance, it might conclude that more hours of sleep lead to better academic performance. However, a confounding variable, such as access to quality study materials, might also be affecting academic performance. If the study had taken into account both hours of sleep and access to study materials, it might conclude that better access to study materials, rather than more hours of sleep, is leading to better academic performance.

Answer 170

- that groups be equal - if not, we have alternative explanations

Answer 171

Create equal groups

Answer 172

refers to a change in symptoms experienced by a person after receiving treatment with no active ingredients. It occurs due to belief in the treatment, positive attention from the provider, and other psychological and social factors, and can impact results in clinical trials.

Answer 173

Participants are unaware if they are in the experimental group or the control group

Answer 174

harm resulting from the mere expectations of harm

Answer 175

Researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study

Answer 176

a study design where neither the participant nor the researcher knows which treatment the participant is receiving. This helps reduce bias and increase the validity of the results by preventing the placebo effect and the influence of the researcher's expectations on the outcome.

Answer 177

harm resulting from the mere expectations of harm

Answer 178

researchers hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study (unintentionally biasing a study)

Answer 179

when neither the researchers nor the participant are aware of who is in the experimental or control group

Answer 180

cues that participants pick up from a study that allows them to generate the researchers hypotheses

Answer 181

cover stories and distractor facts

Answer 182

High external validity Cannot draw causal inferences

Answer 183

provide depth, especially for unique cases cannot draw causal inferences (can't day one thing causes another)

Answer 184

Provide description & and prediction; breadth Cannot draw causal inferences

Answer 185

Can draw causal inferences Low in external validity; narrow focus

Answer 186

represent a system of moral principles and standards

Answer 187

represent a system of moral principles and standards

Answer 188

sentient beings: humans and animals

Answer 189

- progress in psychology depends on willing participants - ethics can impact methodology - deception in research

Answer 190

- 1932-1972 -asked how syphilis spread through the body - recruited 600 financially poor black men - 23 had advanced syphili and were not informed or treated

Answer 191

important information was with held coerced to participate direct harm: low benefit

Answer 192

respect autonomy & protect those with developing impaired, or diminished autonomy

Answer 193

quality if life; physical and mental health

Answer 194

fair and equitable

Answer 195

the independent institutional committee that evaluates whether proposed research projects with human participants comply with the TCPS-2 principles and guidelines.

Answer 196

“To promote research that is conducted according to the highest ethical standards.”

Answer 197

- Informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate - The principle that people have the right to make a voluntary, informed decision about whether to participate in a study -complex endeavor

Answer 198

Researchers intentionally withhold information from (passive) or intentionally mislead (active) participants about the nature of the study - a problem in psychology where people will change their response when they know they're being measures - does not harm participants

Answer 199

Researchers intentionally withhold information from (passive) or deliberately mislead (active) participants about the nature of the study - a problem in psychology where people will change their response when they know they're measured - does not harm participants

Answer 200

- A study cannot be conducted without deception - Does not harm participants - Does not involve a medical or therapeutic intervention - The study is likely to yield significant positive benefits

Answer 201

A conversation or communication with the participant that conveys additional information about the study. when it come to deception this is opportunity to bring he participants in and answer questions

Answer 202

- information about the purpose of the study - gives participants the change to ask questions - minimize negative effects/feelings

Answer 203

Is the knowledge gained worth the suffering? Animals give us important “models” to learn from Some research may not generalize

Answer 204

numrical characterizations that describe data

Answer 205

The measure of the “typical” or “central” scores in a data set Dataset or “distribution” of scores Example: Age in a university class: 18, 20, 22, 22, 23

Answer 206

The average of the distribution of scores

Answer 207

- Adv: includes all numerical information in the dataset - dis: heavily influenced by outliers

Answer 208

the middle score in a data set

Answer 209

the more frequently occurring score in the dataset

Answer 210

measures of how scores vary how loosely or tightly bunched the scores are

Answer 211

difference between the highest and lowest scores

Answer 212

the measure of variability that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean

Answer 213

Mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population

Answer 214

Unlikely to be due to chance alone Conventional threshold is 5/100 or p < 0.05

Chapter 1 & 2: Psychology and scientific thinking/ Research Methods Flashcards

(240 cards)