Chapter 1: Introduction Flashcards
(299 cards)
1
Q
What does Homo sapiens mean?
A
Man the wise
2
Q
What is the main focus of the field of artificial intelligence (AI)?
A
Building intelligent entities that can compute how to act effectively and safely
3
Q
What are some subfields of AI?
A
Learning, reasoning, perception, playing chess, proving mathematical theorems, writing poetry, driving a car, diagnosing diseases
4
Q
True or False: AI is only relevant to a few specific intellectual tasks.
A
False
5
Q
What is the Turing test?
A
A thought experiment designed to determine if a machine can exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from a human.
Proposed by Alan Turing in 1950.
6
Q
What criteria must a computer meet to pass the Turing test?
A
The computer must demonstrate:
* natural language processing
* knowledge representation
* automated reasoning
* machine learning
These capabilities allow the computer to communicate, store knowledge, answer questions, and adapt to new situations.
7
Q
What does natural language processing enable a computer to do?
A
Communicate successfully in a human language.
It is essential for understanding and generating human language.
8
Q
What is knowledge representation in AI?
A
The ability to store what a computer knows or hears.
It is crucial for reasoning and decision-making.
9
Q
Define automated reasoning in the context of AI.
A
The ability to answer questions and draw new conclusions.
This involves logical deductions based on stored knowledge.
10
Q
What role does machine learning play in AI?
A
It allows a computer to adapt to new circumstances and detect and extrapolate patterns.
Machine learning is essential for improving performance over time.
11
Q
What is the total Turing test?
A
A test that requires a robot to interact with objects and people in the real world.
This test expands on the original Turing test by including physical interaction.
12
Q
What additional capabilities are needed for a robot to pass the total Turing test?
A
The robot needs:
* computer vision
* speech recognition
* robotics
These capabilities allow the robot to perceive and manipulate its environment.
13
Q
True or False: Turing believed that physical simulation of a person is necessary to demonstrate intelligence.
A
False.
Turing viewed physical simulation as unnecessary for demonstrating intelligence.
14
Q
What are the three ways we can learn about human thought?
A
- introspection
- psychological experiments
- brain imaging
These methods help us understand the processes and mechanisms behind human cognition.
15
Q
What is required to express a theory of the mind as a computer program?
A
A sufficiently precise theory of the mind
This enables the program’s input-output behavior to be compared with human behavior.
16
Q
Who developed the General Problem Solver (GPS)?
A
Allen Newell and Herbert Simon
GPS was created in 1961 and aimed to solve problems while comparing its reasoning steps with human subjects.
17
Q
Who was one of the first philosophers to codify ‘right thinking’?
A
Aristotle
Aristotle’s work laid the foundation for formal logic.
18
Q
What are syllogisms?
A
Patterns for argument structures that yield correct conclusions from correct premises
An example includes: ‘Socrates is a man; all men are mortal; therefore, Socrates is mortal.’
19
Q
What field of study was initiated by the laws of thought proposed by Aristotle?
A
Logic
Logic governs the operation of the mind and reasoning processes.
20
Q
What did logicians in the 19th century develop?
A
A precise notation for statements about objects and their relations
This contrasts with ordinary arithmetic notation.
21
Q
By what year could programs, in principle, solve any solvable problem described in logical notation?
A
1965
This marked a significant advancement in the field of artificial intelligence.
22
Q
What theory fills the gap of reasoning with uncertain information?
A
The theory of probability
It enables rigorous reasoning despite uncertainty.
23
Q
What does the theory of probability allow in terms of rational thought?
A
Construction of a comprehensive model leading to predictions about the future
It starts from raw perceptual information.
24
Q
True or False: Rational thought alone is sufficient for generating intelligent behavior.
A
False
A theory of rational action is also needed.
25
Fill in the blank: Logic as conventionally understood requires knowledge of the world that is ______.
certain
## Footnote
This requirement limits its application in many real-world scenarios.
26
What is an agent?
An agent is something that acts, derived from the Latin agere, meaning to do.
27
What are the expectations of computer agents?
Computer agents are expected to:
* Operate autonomously
* Perceive their environment
* Persist over a prolonged time period
* Adapt to change
* Create and pursue goals
28
What defines a rational agent?
A rational agent acts to achieve the best outcome or the best expected outcome under uncertainty.
29
What was the focus of the 'laws of thought' approach to AI?
The focus was on making correct inferences.
30
How can a rational agent act without inference?
By performing reflex actions, such as recoiling from a hot stove.
31
What skills are needed for the Turing test?
Skills include:
* Knowledge representation
* Reasoning
* Natural language generation
* Learning
32
What are the advantages of the rational-agent approach to AI?
The rational-agent approach is:
* More general than the 'laws of thought' approach
* More amenable to scientific development
33
Why is the standard of rationality important?
It is mathematically well defined and allows for derivation of agent designs that achieve it.
34
What does the term 'standard model' refer to?
It refers to a pervasive paradigm in AI and other fields that defines the right action by the objective provided to the agent.
35
What is the challenge of perfect rationality in complex environments?
The computational demands are too high to always take the exactly optimal action.
36
Fill in the blank: The rational-agent approach to AI is more general than the 'laws of thought' approach because _______.
[correct inference is just one of several possible mechanisms for achieving rationality]
37
True or False: The rational-agent approach focuses solely on imitating human behavior.
False
38
Who was the first to formulate a precise set of laws governing the rational part of the mind?
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
## Footnote
Aristotle developed an informal system of syllogisms for proper reasoning.
39
What was the name of Ramon Llull's system of reasoning published in 1305?
Ars Magna or The Great Art
## Footnote
Llull attempted to implement his system using a mechanical device with paper wheels.
40
Who constructed the first known calculating machine around 1623?
Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635)
## Footnote
This machine was a significant early step in mechanical computation. (Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) designed one around 1500 but did not build it)
41
What device did Blaise Pascal build in 1642?
The Pascaline
## Footnote
Pascal described it as producing effects closer to thought than animal actions.
42
What idea did Thomas Hobbes propose in his 1651 book Leviathan?
The concept of a thinking machine or 'artificial animal'
## Footnote
Hobbes likened reasoning to numerical computation.
43
What philosophical distinction did René Descartes (1596-1650) discuss?
The distinction between mind and matter
## Footnote
Descartes argued for dualism, suggesting a part of the human mind is outside of nature.
44
What is materialism in relation to the mind?
The view that the brain's operation according to physical laws constitutes the mind
## Footnote
Materialism contrasts with dualism, emphasizing a physical basis for mental processes.
45
What is the dictum of John Locke (1632-1704) regarding knowledge?
'Nothing is in the understanding, which was not first in the senses.'
## Footnote
This reflects the empiricism movement initiated by Francis Bacon (1561-1626).
46
What principle did David Hume (1711-1776) propose in A Treatise of Human Nature in 1739?
The principle of induction
## Footnote
This principle states that general rules are learned through repeated associations.
47
What doctrine did the Vienna Circle develop in the 1920s and 1930s?
Logical positivism
## Footnote
This doctrine combines rationalism and empiricism, asserting that knowledge is linked to observation.
48
What did Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970) and Carl Hempel (1905-1997) analyze in their confirmation theory?
The acquisition of knowledge from experience
## Footnote
They aimed to quantify the degree of belief assigned to logical sentences based on observations.
49
According to Aristotle, how are actions justified?
By a logical connection between goals and knowledge of the action’s outcome
## Footnote
Aristotle discussed this in De Motu Animalium.
50
In Nicomachean Ethics, what did Aristotle suggest about deliberation?
We deliberate not about ends, but about means
## Footnote
This implies that decisions focus on how to achieve assumed ends.
51
What algorithm did Newell and Simon implement based on Aristotle's ideas?
General Problem Solver program
## Footnote
This was an early example of a greedy regression planning system.
52
What concept did Antoine Arnauld (1662) analyze in relation to rational decisions?
Maximizing expected monetary value
## Footnote
This analysis was particularly relevant in gambling contexts.
53
Who introduced the notion of utility to capture subjective value?
Daniel Bernoulli (1738)
## Footnote
Utility is a key concept in rational decision making under uncertainty.
54
What ethical theory did Jeremy Bentham (1823) and John Stuart Mill (1863) promote?
Utilitarianism
## Footnote
This theory advocates for maximizing utility in decision making.
55
What is deontological ethics according to Immanuel Kant?
A theory where 'doing the right thing' is determined by universal social laws
## Footnote
Kant argued that actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of outcomes. Proposed in 1785
56
How did Mill view rules in ethical decision making?
As efficient decision procedures based on first-principles reasoning
## Footnote
He acknowledged the importance of rules but emphasized their derivation from consequences.
57
What is the significance of George Boole (1815-1864) in the development of formal logic?
He worked out the details of propositional, or Boolean, logic.
## Footnote
in 1879
58
Who extended Boole’s logic to include objects and relations?
Gottlob Frege (1848-1925).
59
What is first-order logic and who created it?
It is a form of logic that includes objects and relations, created by Gottlob Frege.
60
What fundamental role did first-order logic play in AI research?
It motivated the work of Gödel and Turing that underpinned computation.
61
Who first framed the idea of probability?
Gerolamo Cardano (1501-1576).
62
What did Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) contribute to the theory of probability?
He showed how to predict the future of an unfinished gambling game.
## Footnote
In 1654
63
Which statistical methods were advanced by Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705) and Pierre Laplace (1749-1827)?
New statistical methods in probability theory.
64
What is Bayes’ rule?
A rule for updating probabilities in light of new evidence.
65
What did John Graunt analyze in 1662 that contributed to statistics?
London census data.
66
Who is considered the first modern statistician?
Ronald Fisher.
## Footnote
He brought together the ideas of probablities, experiment design, analysis of data, and computing
67
What is the significance of Euclid’s algorithm?
It is thought to be the first nontrivial algorithm for computing greatest common divisors.
68
What does the term 'algorithm' derive from?
The name of the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi.
## Footnote
He was a 9th century mathematician whose writings also introduced arabic numerals and algebra to Europe.
69
What does Kurt Gödel's (1906-1978) incompleteness theorem demonstrate?
Limits on deduction exist, and some true statements cannot be proven within a formal system.
## Footnote
in 1931
70
What does the Church–Turing thesis propose?
To identify the general notion of computability with functions computed by a Turing machine.
71
What is the difference between tractable and intractable problems?
Intractable problems require exponential time to solve, while tractable problems can be solved in polynomial time.
72
Who pioneered the theory of NP-completeness?
Stephen Cook (1971) and Richard Karp (1972).
## Footnote
It provides a basis for analysing the tractability of problems: any problem class to which the class of NP-complete problems can be reduced is likely to be intractable
73
True or False: It has been proven that NP-complete problems are necessarily intractable.
False.
74
What was the optimism of the popular press regarding the first computers?
They were referred to as 'Electronic Super-Brains' that were 'Faster than Einstein!'
75
What is the impact of exponential growth in problem size?
Moderately large instances cannot be solved in any reasonable time.
76
What did Gödel show about some functions on integers?
They cannot be represented by an algorithm.
77
What did Turing demonstrate about certain functions and Turing machines?
Some functions cannot be computed by any Turing machine.
78
What is a key tool for AI systems proposed by Thomas Bayes (1702-1761)?
Bayes’ rule.
79
Who published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations?
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
## Footnote
Published in 1776, it marked the origin of the science of economics.
80
What does Adam Smith analyze in economics?
Individual agents attending to their own interests
## Footnote
Smith emphasizes that this analysis does not advocate financial greed as a moral position.
81
What is the title of Adam Smith's earlier work published in 1759?
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
## Footnote
It highlights the importance of concern for the well-being of others.
82
What is the maximum-expected-value formula associated with?
Monetary value of bets
## Footnote
Introduced by Arnauld in 1662.
83
Who proposed the principle of maximization of expected utility?
Daniel Bernoulli
## Footnote
He observed that the maximum-expected-value formula was inadequate for larger sums.
84
What happens to the marginal utility of additional money as one acquires more?
It diminishes
## Footnote
This principle explains human investment choices.
85
Who gave utility theory a more general foundation?
Léon Walras (1834-1910)
## Footnote
He expanded it beyond just monetary outcomes.
86
What did John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern contribute to economics?
The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior
## Footnote
Published in 1944, it improved utility theory.
87
What is economics now considered to be the study of?
Desires and preferences
## Footnote
It has evolved beyond just the study of money.
88
What does decision theory combine?
Probability theory with utility theory
## Footnote
It provides a framework for decisions made under uncertainty.
89
In what type of economies do individual actions significantly affect others?
Small economies
## Footnote
In these economies, the situation resembles a game.
90
What surprising result did von Neumann and Morgenstern's game theory reveal?
Rational agents may adopt randomized policies
## Footnote
This differs from the unambiguous prescriptions of decision theory.
91
What is the focus of multiagent systems in AI?
Decisions involving multiple agents
92
What topic did economists largely overlook regarding rational decision-making?
Rational decisions with sequential payoffs
## Footnote
This led to the emergence of operations research.
93
Who formalized Markov decision processes?
Richard Bellman
## Footnote
His work in 1957 focused on sequential decision problems.
94
What did Herbert Simon win the Nobel Prize for?
His work on satisficing
## Footnote
He showed that good enough decisions better reflect actual human behavior.
95
What has there been a resurgence of interest in since the 1990s?
Decision-theoretic techniques for AI
## Footnote
This reflects a growing integration between economics and AI.
96
What is neuroscience?
The study of the nervous system, particularly the brain.
97
What historical evidence indicates that the brain enables thought?
Strong blows to the head can lead to mental incapacitation.
98
Who noted that man has the largest brain in proportion to body size?
Aristotle in about 335 BCE.
99
When was the brain widely recognized as the seat of consciousness?
In the middle of the 18th century.
100
Which areas were considered as candidate locations for consciousness before the brain?
The heart and the spleen.
101
What did Paul Broca investigate in 1861?
Aphasia (speech deficit) in brain-damaged patients.
102
What area in the brain is responsible for speech production?
Broca's area.
103
Who developed a staining technique to observe individual neurons?
Camillo Golgi in 1873.
104
What is the relationship between neurons and cognitive functions?
Cognitive functions result from the electrochemical operation of neurons.
105
Who stated that 'brains cause minds'?
John Searle in 1992.
106
What has been observed regarding the mapping between brain areas and body parts?
Mappings can change radically over a few weeks.
107
When did the measurement of intact brain activity begin?
In 1929 with the invention of the electroencephalograph (EEG).
108
What technology provides detailed images of brain activity?
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
109
What is optogenetics?
A method that allows measurement and control of individual neurons modified to be light-sensitive.
110
What do brain–machine interfaces promise?
To restore function to disabled individuals and shed light on neural systems.
111
What notable ability does the brain have regarding external devices?
To adjust itself to interface successfully with an external device.
112
What are the main components of a neuron?
* Cell body (soma) * Dendrites * Axon.
113
How many other neurons can a neuron connect with?
10 to 100,000 other neurons at synapses.
114
What is the basic organizational unit of the cerebral cortex?
A column of tissue about 0.5 mm in diameter containing about 20,000 neurons.
115
How does the cycle time of computers compare to that of the brain?
Computers have a cycle time that is a million times faster than a brain.
116
What do futurists predict about computers and superhuman performance?
An approaching singularity where computers reach a superhuman level of performance.
117
What is a critical factor for understanding intelligence beyond faster machines?
The right theory.
118
Who are the primary figures associated with the origins of scientific psychology?
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) and Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
119
What significant contribution did Hermann von Helmholtz make to psychology?
Applied the scientific method to the study of human vision
120
What is considered the most important treatise on the physics and physiology of human vision?
Handbook of Physiological Optics
121
In what year did Wilhelm Wundt open the first laboratory of experimental psychology?
1879
122
What method did Wundt insist on for conducting experiments?
Carefully controlled experiments with introspection
123
What did the subjective nature of data in Wundt's experiments imply?
Experimenters would likely not disconfirm their own theories
124
How did biologists studying animal behavior differ from psychologists in their methodology?
Developed an objective methodology without introspective data
125
Who led the behaviorism movement?
John Watson (1878-1958)
126
What did behaviorists reject in their studies?
Any theory involving mental processes
127
What was the primary focus of behaviorists in their research?
Objective measures of stimulus and response
128
What did behaviorism successfully study?
Rats and pigeons
129
What is the perspective of cognitive psychology regarding the brain?
Views the brain as an information-processing device
130
Who is considered a foundational figure in cognitive psychology?
William James (1842-1910)
131
What did Helmholtz assert about perception?
Involves a form of unconscious logical inference
132
What was the role of Cambridge’s Applied Psychology Unit in the cognitive viewpoint?
Allowed cognitive modeling to flourish
133
What did Kenneth Craik argue regarding mental terms?
They are as scientific as physical terms like pressure and temperature
134
What are the three key steps of a knowledge-based agent according to Craik?
* Translate stimulus into internal representation * Manipulate representation to derive new representations * Retranslate into action
135
What advantage does a knowledge-based agent have according to Craik?
Can react competently to emergencies by modeling external reality
136
Who continued Craik’s work after his death?
Donald Broadbent
137
What was one of the first works to model psychological phenomena as information processing?
Perception and Communication
138
What significant event is considered the start of cognitive science?
A workshop at MIT in September 1956
139
What influential paper did George Miller present at the MIT workshop?
The Magic Number Seven
140
What common view do many psychologists hold regarding cognitive theories?
They should describe cognitive functions like a computer program
141
Who was a pioneer of human-computer interaction (HCI)?
Doug Engelbart
142
What concept did Doug Engelbart advocate for regarding computers?
Intelligence augmentation (IA)
143
What demonstration did Engelbart present in 1968?
The mother of all demos
144
What technologies were showcased in Engelbart's demo?
* Computer mouse * Windowing system * Hypertext * Video conferencing
145
How are IA and AI viewed in contemporary discussions?
As two sides of the same coin
146
What does IA emphasize in the context of technology?
Human control
147
What does AI emphasize in the context of technology?
Intelligent behavior of machines
148
What was the first operational computer?
The electromechanical Heath Robinson built in 1943
149
Who developed the first operational programmable computer?
Konrad Zuse in Germany in 1941
150
What significant invention did Zuse create besides the Z-3?
Floating-point numbers and the first high-level programming language, Plankalkül
151
Who assembled the first electronic computer, the ABC?
John Atanasoff and his student Clifford Berry
## Footnote
between 1940 and 1942
152
What was the ENIAC developed for?
A secret military project at the University of Pennsylvania
153
What is Moore's law?
Performance doubled every 18 months
154
What trend did hardware generations follow until around 2005?
Increase in speed and capacity and a decrease in price
155
What is the expected future increase in functionality based on?
Massive parallelism
## Footnote
A curious convergence with properties of the brain
156
What is a significant format that allows faster processing with reduced precision?
bfloat16 format
## Footnote
16 bits
157
Name some hardware designed for AI applications.
.Graphics processing unit (GPU), tensor processing unit (TPU), and wafer scale engine (WSE)
158
What significant increase occurred in computing power from 2012 to 2018?
300,000-fold increase
## Footnote
Double every 100 days as opposed to moores law expectations
159
Who devised the first programmable machine?
Joseph Marie Jacquard
## Footnote
The loom, devised in 1805. Used punched cards to store instructions for the pattern to be woven
160
What was Charles Babbage's Difference Engine intended for?
To compute mathematical tables for engineering and scientific projects
161
What was unique about Babbage's Analytical Engine?
It included addressable memory and stored programs based on punched cards
162
How did Ada Lovelace describe the Analytical Engine?
As a thinking or reasoning machine
## Footnote
Daughter of poet Lord Byron, in 1843
163
What did Lovelace anticipate regarding AI?
The hype cycles and the need to guard against exaggerated ideas
164
What contributions has AI made to mainstream computer science?
Pioneered ideas such as time sharing, interactive interpreters, and automatic storage management
165
Fill in the blank: The first programmable machine used _______ to store instructions.
punched cards
166
True or False: The Analytical Engine was completed during Babbage's lifetime.
False
167
What was a key concept of programming introduced by AI?
Symbolic programming
168
Who built the first self-controlling machine?
Ktesibios of Alexandria
## Footnote
Ktesibios built a water clock with a regulator around 250 BCE.
169
What significant change did Ktesibios's invention bring to the definition of artifacts?
It allowed artifacts to modify their behavior in response to environmental changes.
170
Name two examples of self-regulating feedback control systems.
* Steam engine governor by James Watt (1736-1819)
* Thermostat by Cornelis Drebbel (1572-1633)
171
Who initiated the mathematical theory of control systems?
James Clerk Maxwell in 1868.
172
What was Norbert Wiener's (1894-1964) contribution to control theory?
He developed an interest in biological and mechanical control systems and their connection to cognition.
173
Which mathematicians worked alongside Norbert Wiener?
* Bertrand Russell
* Arturo Rosenblueth
* Julian Bigelow
174
What did Wiener and his colleagues challenge?
The behaviorist orthodoxy.
175
What did Wiener view purposive behavior as arising from?
A regulatory mechanism trying to minimize 'error'.
176
What was the focus of the influential conferences organized by Wiener?
New mathematical and computational models of cognition.
177
What was the title of Wiener's bestselling book?
Cybernetics (1948).
178
Who pioneered similar ideas to Wiener in Britain?
W. Ross Ashby.
179
What was the purpose of the Ratio Club formed by Ashby and others?
To discuss ideas similar to Wiener's before his book appeared.
180
What did Ashby elaborate on in his work 'Design for a Brain'?
The idea that intelligence could be created using homeostatic devices with feedback loops.
181
What is the goal of modern control theory, particularly stochastic optimal control?
To design systems that minimize a cost function over time.
182
Why are AI and control theory considered different fields despite their connections?
Different mathematical techniques and sets of problems encompassed in each worldview.
183
What tools of control theory are mentioned in the text?
* Calculus
* Matrix algebra
184
What aspects did AI researchers consider that fell outside the control theorist's purview?
* Language
* Vision
* Symbolic planning
185
Fill in the blank: The first self-controlling machine was a _______.
[water clock]
186
Who published Verbal Behavior in 1957?
B. F. Skinner
## Footnote
Skinner was the foremost expert in behaviorism.
187
What impact did Noam Chomsky's review of Verbal Behavior have?
It almost killed off interest in behaviorism
## Footnote
Chomsky's review was as well known as the book itself.
188
What theory did Noam Chomsky publish around the same time as his review?
Syntactic Structures
189
What key concept did Chomsky argue was missing from the behaviorist theory?
Creativity in language
190
What ability did Chomsky highlight that behaviorism could not explain?
How children could understand and make up sentences they had never heard before
191
Which ancient linguist's models did Chomsky's theory draw upon?
Panini
192
What hybrid field emerged from the intersection of linguistics and AI?
Computational linguistics or natural language processing
193
What realization about understanding language emerged in the 1960s?
It requires an understanding of the subject matter and context, not just sentence structure
194
What early work was tied to language and informed by research in linguistics?
Knowledge representation
195
Fill in the blank: The study of how to put knowledge into a form that a computer can reason with is called _______.
knowledge representation
196
True or False: The complexity of understanding language was widely appreciated in 1957.
False
197
Who were the first Turing Award winners in AI history?
Marvin Minsky (1969) and John McCarthy (1971)
## Footnote
They were recognized for defining the foundations of the field based on representation and reasoning.
198
What did Allen Newell and Herbert Simon win the Turing Award for?
Symbolic models of problem solving and human cognition
## Footnote
Awarded in 1975.
199
What contribution did Ed Feigenbaum and Raj Reddy make to AI?
Developing expert systems that encode human knowledge to solve real-world problems
## Footnote
They received the Turing Award in 1994.
200
Who is known for developing probabilistic reasoning techniques in AI?
Judea Pearl (2011)
## Footnote
His work addresses uncertainty in a principled manner.
201
What is the significance of Yoshua Bengio, Geoffrey Hinton, and Yann LeCun's work?
They made deep learning a critical part of modern computing
## Footnote
They won the Turing Award in 2019.
202
Who is credited with the first recognized work in AI?
Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1943)
## Footnote
Their work involved artificial neurons and propositional logic.
203
What did McCulloch and Pitts propose about artificial neurons?
Each neuron can be 'on' or 'off' and can learn
## Footnote
They modeled neurons based on physiological principles and logic.
204
What is Hebbian learning?
A simple updating rule for modifying connection strengths between neurons
## Footnote
Demonstrated by Donald Hebb in 1949.
205
What was the SNARC?
The first neural network computer built by Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds in 1950
## Footnote
It simulated a network of 40 neurons. Used 3000 vacuum tubes and a surplus automatic pilot mechanism from a B-24 bomber.
206
What significant concept did Alan Turing introduce in his 1950 article?
The Turing test
## Footnote
He also discussed machine learning and genetic algorithms.
207
What was the purpose of the Dartmouth workshop in 1956?
To study artificial intelligence and how machines can simulate learning and intelligence
## Footnote
Organized by John McCarthy and others.
208
Was the Dartmouth workshop successful in leading to breakthroughs in AI?
No, it did not lead to significant breakthroughs despite optimistic predictions
## Footnote
The work presented was foundational but did not yield immediate advancements.
209
What was the Logic Theorist (LT)?
A mathematical theorem-proving system presented by Newell and Simon
## Footnote
It could prove theorems in Russell and Whitehead’s Principia Mathematica.
210
Fill in the blank: The first work recognized as AI was done by _______ and _______.
Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts
211
True or False: The editors of the Journal of Symbolic Logic were impressed by the Logic Theorist's proofs.
False
## Footnote
They rejected a paper coauthored by Newell, Simon, and Logic Theorist.
212
Who referred to the 1950s era as the 'Look, Ma, no hands!' era?
John McCarthy
213
What is the General Problem Solver (GPS) designed to imitate?
Human problem-solving protocols.
214
What hypothesis did Newell and Simon formulate in 1976?
Physical symbol system hypothesis.
215
What does the physical symbol system hypothesis state?
A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means for general intelligent action.
## Footnote
What they meant is that any system (human or machine) exhibiting intelligence must operate by manipulating data structures composed of symbols
216
What was Herbert Gelernter's contribution to AI in 1959?
Geometry Theorem Prover.
217
What did Arthur Samuel's work on checkers demonstrate?
Programs can learn and improve beyond their initial programming.
218
What learning method did Arthur Samuel's checkers program use?
Reinforcement learning.
219
What programming language did John McCarthy define in 1958?
Lisp.
220
What was the Advice Taker proposed by John McCarthy?
A hypothetical program embodying general knowledge and reasoning.
221
What principle did the Advice Taker embody?
Knowledge representation and reasoning.
222
What method was discovered by J. A. Robinson in 1965?
Resolution method.
223
What project at Stanford demonstrated integration of logical reasoning and physical activity?
Shakey robotics project.
224
What are microworlds in AI?
Limited domains requiring intelligence to solve.
225
What problem did James Slagle's SAINT program solve?
Closed-form calculus integration problems.
226
What is the most famous microworld?
Blocks world.
227
Who worked on the vision project in the blocks world?
David Huffman.
228
What did the perceptron convergence theorem state?
The learning algorithm can adjust the connection strengths of a perceptron to match any input data.
229
Fill in the blank: The blocks world consists of a set of solid blocks placed on a _______.
Tabletop.
230
Who enhanced Hebb's learning methods with adalines?
Bernie Widrow.
231
What concept did Shmuel Winograd and Jack Cowan's work demonstrate?
Collective representation of concepts by multiple elements.
232
What is the significance of the Advice Taker's ability to accept new axioms?
Allows competence in new areas without reprogramming.
233
What did Herbert Simon predict about machines in 1957?
Machines that think, learn, and create will increase rapidly in ability to handle problems coextensive with the human mind.
## Footnote
Simon's predictions included that a computer would become a chess champion and prove a significant mathematical theorem within 10 years.
234
What was the time frame in which Simon's predictions came true?
Approximately 40 years rather than the predicted 10 years.
235
What was a primary reason for the failure of early AI systems?
They were based on 'informed introspection' rather than careful analysis of tasks and algorithms needed for reliable solutions.
236
What was the second main reason for early AI systems' failure?
A lack of appreciation for the intractability of many problems AI was trying to solve.
237
How did early problem-solving systems operate?
By trying out different combinations of steps until the solution was found.
238
What misconception did researchers have before the theory of computational complexity was developed?
That 'scaling up' to larger problems was simply a matter of faster hardware and larger memories.
239
What was one of the main criticisms of AI in the Lighthill report?
Failure to address the 'combinatorial explosion' of possibilities in problem-solving.
240
What was the outcome of the Lighthill report for AI research in the UK?
The British government decided to end support for AI research in all but two universities.
241
What fundamental limitation did Minsky and Papert's book 'Perceptrons' reveal?
Perceptrons could learn only what they were capable of representing, which was very limited.
242
What could a two-input perceptron not be trained to recognize?
When its two inputs were different.
243
What happened to research funding for neural-net research after the publication of 'Perceptrons'?
Funding dwindled to almost nothing.
244
When did the back-propagation learning algorithms, crucial for neural-net resurgence, get developed?
In the early 1960s.
245
True or False: Early experiments in machine evolution demonstrated significant progress.
False.
246
Fill in the blank: The illusion of unlimited computational power was not confined to _______.
[problem-solving programs].
247
What is the picture of problem solving that arose during the first decade of AI research?
A general-purpose search mechanism trying to string together elementary reasoning steps to find complete solutions.
248
What are weak methods in AI?
General approaches that do not scale up to large or difficult problem instances.
249
What is the alternative to weak methods in AI?
Using more powerful, domain-specific knowledge that allows larger reasoning steps.
250
What was the DENDRAL program designed to do?
Infer molecular structure from information provided by a mass spectrometer.
251
Who were the key figures behind the DENDRAL program?
Ed Feigenbaum, Bruce Buchanan, and Joshua Lederberg.
252
What type of input did the DENDRAL program use?
The elementary formula of the molecule and the mass spectrum of its fragments.
253
What is an example of a mass spectrum peak related to DENDRAL's input?
A peak at m = 15 corresponds to the mass of a methyl (CH₃) fragment.
254
What was a limitation of the naive version of the DENDRAL program?
It generated all possible structures consistent with the formula, which is intractable for moderate-sized molecules.
255
How did DENDRAL researchers improve the program's efficiency?
By consulting analytical chemists who recognized patterns in the mass spectrum.
256
What was the significance of DENDRAL in AI?
It was the first successful knowledge-intensive system that embodied expertise through special-purpose rules.
257
What was the MYCIN system designed for?
Diagnosing blood infections.
258
How many rules did MYCIN contain?
About 450 rules.
259
What were the two major differences between MYCIN and DENDRAL?
* MYCIN rules were acquired from extensive interviews with experts
* MYCIN incorporated uncertainty through certainty factors
260
What was the first successful commercial expert system?
R1 at the Digital Equipment Corporation.
261
What was the financial impact of the R1 system by 1986?
It was saving the company an estimated $40 million a year.
262
How many expert systems were deployed by DEC by 1988?
40 expert systems.
263
What was the AI industry's growth from 1980 to 1988?
From a few million dollars to billions of dollars.
264
What was the Fifth Generation project announced by the Japanese government?
A 10-year plan to build massively parallel, intelligent computers running Prolog.
265
What was the budget for the Fifth Generation project in today's money?
Exceeding $1.3 billion.
266
What was the purpose of the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC)?
To assure national competitiveness in AI.
267
What was the outcome of the ambitious AI projects in the 1980s?
None of these projects met their ambitious goals in terms of new AI capabilities or economic impact.
268
What period followed the AI boom in the late 1980s?
The 'AI winter' where many companies failed.
269
What were the challenges faced by expert systems during the AI winter?
* Difficulty in building and maintaining expert systems for complex domains
* Reasoning methods broke down in the face of uncertainty
* Systems could not learn from experience
270
Fill in the blank: DENDRAL was powerful because it embodied relevant knowledge in the form of _______.
[efficient cookbook recipes]
271
What algorithm was reinvented by at least four different groups in the mid-1980s?
Back-propagation learning algorithm
## Footnote
This algorithm was originally developed in the early 1960s and was pivotal in the resurgence of neural networks.
272
What collection disseminated results that caused excitement in the field of connectionist models?
Parallel Distributed Processing
## Footnote
This collection was edited by Rumelhart and McClelland in 1986.
273
Who described symbols as the 'luminiferous aether of AI'?
Geoff Hinton
## Footnote
This metaphor suggests that symbols may not be as fundamental to AI as once thought.
274
What is a defining characteristic of humans according to Terrence Deacon?
Manipulating symbols
## Footnote
This idea is presented in Deacon's book, The Symbolic Species.
275
What capability do connectionist models have that allows them to perform better over time?
Learning from examples
## Footnote
They compare predicted output values to true values and modify parameters accordingly.
276
What approach did the brittleness of expert systems lead to in AI?
Incorporating probability and machine learning
## Footnote
This marked a shift towards more scientific methodologies in AI.
277
What type of benchmark problem sets became the norm for demonstrating progress in AI?
Shared benchmark problem sets
## Footnote
Examples include the UC Irvine repository and ImageNet.
278
What were the two major contributions of Judea Pearl in 1988?
Probabilistic reasoning and Bayesian networks
## Footnote
Pearl's work led to a new acceptance of probability in AI.
279
What connects reinforcement learning to Markov decision processes (MDPs)?
Rich Sutton's work
## Footnote
His work connected reinforcement learning to MDPs, which originated in operations research.
280
What was a significant outcome of AI's appreciation for data and statistical modeling?
Reunification of subfields like computer vision and robotics
## Footnote
This led to enhanced applications and theoretical understanding in AI.
281
Fill in the blank: The algorithm that became dominant in speech recognition in the 1980s is called _______.
Hidden Markov Models (HMMs)
## Footnote
HMMs are based on rigorous mathematical theory and training on large corpora.
282
True or False: There was a scientific claim that humans use HMMs to recognize speech.
False
## Footnote
HMMs are a mathematical framework, not a claim about human cognition.
283
What did AI initially rebel against in its early development?
Limitations of existing fields like control theory and statistics
## Footnote
AI's early isolationism has since been abandoned in favor of integration with other fields.
284
What phenomenon is sometimes known as big data?
The creation of very large data sets
## Footnote
These data sets include trillions of words of text, billions of images, and more.
285
What types of data are included in big data?
* Genomic data
* Vehicle tracking data
* Clickstream data
* Social network data
## Footnote
Big data encompasses a wide variety of data types.
286
What is the significance of unlabeled examples in large data sets?
They can still be accurately classified by suitable learning algorithms
## Footnote
Example: Yarowsky’s (1995) work on word-sense disambiguation.
287
According to Banko and Brill (2001), what outweighs algorithmic improvements?
Increasing the size of the data set by two or three orders of magnitude
## Footnote
This suggests that data quantity is more impactful than algorithm refinement.
288
What technique did Hays and Efros (2007) develop for computer vision tasks?
Blending in pixels from similar images
## Footnote
This method improved significantly with larger databases.
289
What database sparked a revolution in computer vision?
ImageNet
## Footnote
It provided tens of millions of images for training.
290
What role did big data play in IBM’s Watson victory in Jeopardy!?
It was a crucial factor in the victory
## Footnote
This event changed public perception of AI.
291
Define deep learning.
Machine learning using multiple layers of simple, adjustable computing elements
## Footnote
Deep learning methods have evolved significantly since the 1970s.
292
In which year did deep learning methods begin to take off?
2011
## Footnote
This was evident in speech and visual object recognition.
293
What significant improvement did the deep learning system in the 2012 ImageNet competition achieve?
Dramatic improvement over previous systems based on handcrafted features
## Footnote
Developed by Geoffrey Hinton’s group.
294
What areas have reported gains due to deep learning?
* Speech recognition
* Machine translation
* Medical diagnosis
* Game playing
## Footnote
Deep learning has led to advancements in various fields.
295
What contributed to ALPHAGO’s victories over human Go players?
The use of a deep network to represent the evaluation function
## Footnote
This demonstrates deep learning's effectiveness in complex game scenarios.
296
What has led to a resurgence of interest in AI?
Remarkable successes of deep learning systems
## Footnote
This interest spans across multiple sectors including students and investors.
297
How many operations per second can a standard computer CPU perform?
10⁹ or 10¹⁰ operations per second
## Footnote
This contrasts with specialized hardware used for deep learning.
298
What range of operations per second can specialized hardware for deep learning consume?
Between 10¹⁴ and 10¹⁷ operations per second
## Footnote
Specialized hardware enables highly parallelized operations.
299
What does deep learning depend on besides powerful hardware?
The availability of large amounts of training data
## Footnote
Algorithmic tricks also play a role in deep learning success.
