Chapter 1: Introduction to scientific reasoning

Question 1

How scientists work

Answer 1

Science is based on empiricism
Scientists test theories
Scientists work on fundamental and applied problems
Science is continuously evolving
Scientists publish their findings in scientific journals
Scientists communicate with the general public via journalists

Question 2

Empiricism

Answer 2

We use an empirical method in scientific research and we us data
Empirical method is based on data obtained through our senses and instruments that assist our senses
Empiricists aim to do research in a systematic, rigorous and replicable manner
Empiricism is not based on own experiences, intuition or authority

Question 3

Three characteristics of good theories

Answer 3

1. Supported by data
2. Falsifiable
3. Parsimonious: if there are two explanations for a phenomenon and they are both qualitative, we use the easiest explanation

Question 4

Merton’s four scientific norms

Answer 4

1. Universalism: everyone should be able to do science
2. Communality: share the results with the scientific community
3. Disinterestedness: pursue research because you want to find out something, not money/fame/…
4. Organized skepticism: a system to check and evaluate each other’s work

Question 5

Fundamental vs applied research

Answer 5

Fundamental research: done because we want to advance theoretical insights or learn more about a phenomenon
Applied research: done because we want to use the theory to apply in practical situations

Question 6

Peer-review proces of publishing

Answer 6

Role of editor: manages submission and makes first decision whether article could be published
Role of reviewers: read the manuscript (because they have expertise on the topic) and evaluate the strengths/weaknesses
Reject, revise and resubmit, accept (acceptance rate: 10%)
Scientist’s careers rely on publication → high motivation to publish → may change their thoughts and intentions

Question 7

Research vs experience

Answer 7

Researcher: comparison group ; experience: has no comparison group
Researchers: control for third variables ; experience: confounded by third variables
We don’t control our own experience for multiple, simultaneously acting factors that influence our feelings and behaviors
Research is probabilistic: what you conclude in one experiment, does not mean it is accurate for everyone

Question 8

Research vs intuition

Answer 8

Cognitive biases: a good story, availability heuristic, present/present bias, confirmation bias, confirmation hypothesis testing, bias blind spot, Dunning-kruger effect

Question 9

A good story

Answer 9

If we hear a good story about a theory/phenomenon, we tend to believe the theory behind it and it makes sense in our heads (may not always be true)

Question 10

Availability heuristic

Answer 10

When evaluating situations/theories, we tend to focus on information that is readily available
(fa. we overestimate the chances of dying in a plane crash and underestimate dying due to a bike crash, because we can imagine a plane crash better)

Question 11

Present/present bias

Answer 11

The tendency to rather settle for a smaller present reward than to wait for a larger future reward in a trade-off situation

Question 12

Confirmation bias

Answer 12

We tend to believe information and theories that confirm out prior beliefs and give more attention to things that confirm this believe

Question 13

Confirmation hypothesis testing

Answer 13

Setting up hypothesis in such a way that in advance, they already know it will be confirmed
This is an unconscious process
Even worse than confirmation bias

Question 14

Bias blind spot

Answer 14

We tend to overlook our own susceptibility to biases and phenomenons (it exists, but not in ourselves)

Question 15

Dunning-kruger effect

Answer 15

If you have knowledge or expertise about something, you are less convinced about the assumptions and more quiet, because you want to be discrete and professional
People who know less, will shout the loudest about their beliefs

Question 16

Research vs authority figures

Answer 16

Andrew Wayfield made a claim that vaccines would lead to problems with kids and would increase the chances of genetic disorder → anti-vax movement
Problems: did not mention that ‘research’ was funded by competitor of the vaccination + he messed with data

Question 17

Scientific sources

Answer 17

Can be published in forms other than scientific articles: scientific books, blogs, popular media, …
We have more confidence in review articles than in single empirical articles
Careful with media sources because there is less control